Mexican Wholesale

Chichen Itza, El Castillo, Kukulkan Pyramid, Mayan Civilization

Chichen Itza which means “at the mouth of the well of Itza “, is the 2nd most visited archeological site of Mexico today. The Kukulkan Pyramid in Chichen-Itza which known as “El Castillo” (the castle), is one of the new seven wonders of the world elected in 07.07.2007. It is exactly 24 m. high considering the upper platform. Apart from the Kukulkan Pyramid, in Chichen Itza there many other archaeological sites to visit, all carrying traces from Mayan Culture in many ways.

Chichen-Itza, now including one of the new 7 wonders of the world; the Kukulkan Pyramid, is located in the Peninsula of Yucatan, in the Yucatan State; Mexico, between Valladolid and Merida and is just120 km from Merida.

The New Seven Wonders of the World were announced on july 7th, 2007 in Lisbon, Portugal after seven years of publicity and promotion.

* Chichen Itza, Mexico
* The Great Wall, China
* Petra, Jordan
* Christ Redeemer, Brazil
* Machu Picchu, Peru
* The Roman Collesseum, Italy
* The Taj Mahal, India

Chichén Itzá
“The most famous, spectacular, and, consequently, most frequently visited of Mexico’s Mayan sites, the magnificent metropolis of Chichén Itzá was the principal ceremonial center of the Yucatán.”

Resources: Chichen Itza.com

Re-Published on January 5, 2012 by Aetna Jo Buitron

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January the 6th is a special day in Mexico. Known as ‘El Dia de Reyes’ (Three Kings Day), this holiday represents the height of the Christmas season. The date marks the culmination of the twelve days of Christmas and commemorates the three wise men who traveled from afar, bearing gifts for the infant baby Jesus. The children of Mexico in particular look forward to this holiday as traditionally, gifts are exchanged on this date, not on Christmas day.

In Mexico and many other Latin American countries, Santa Claus doesn’t hold the cachet that he does in the United States. Rather, it is the three wise men who are the bearers of gifts, who leave presents in or near the shoes of small children. The holiday is also known by the name of the Epiphany which dates back to the 4th century. A grand feast would be held on this day to honor the occasion of Jesus’ baptism and to pay homage to the three wise men.

	Los Tres Reyes Magos

Many believe mysterious events preceded Jesus’ birth with perhaps the most notable being the appearance of the Star of Bethlehem. This new star appeared in the evening sky just prior to the arrival of Jesus. Three wise men or Magi as they were then known, whose names were Gaspar, Melchior and Balthasar, traveled a far distance to pay homage to the Christ child. They brought with them fine gifts of gold, frankincense and myrrh.

Three Kings Day remains an important holiday for the people of Mexico. In addition to the gift-giving aspect of the day there is also a culinary treat that is specific to the holiday. Known as ‘Rosca de Reyes’ (King’s Cake), this holiday dessert offers much in the way of symbolism. Shaped in the round to signify a king’s crown, this sweet bread holds a special surprise. Baked inside is a small plastic figurine representing the baby Jesus. Whoever finds this token is obligated to host an upcoming party for the occasion of ‘Dia de la Candelaria’ (Candlemas Day) which occurs each year on February 2nd.

	Rosca de Reyes

The effigy of the baby Jesus, hidden inside the cake, represents another aspect of the holiday. The reason Jesus is ‘hidden’ inside the bread is to symbolize how in life, the Christ child’s birth location also needed to remain secret, in order that his life be spared. The ruler of Jerusalem at the time, King Herod, had been appraised of the mystical signs that indicated the new and rightful King of Jerusalem was soon to be born. Herod’s reaction to these predictions was swift and horrible. He ordered his minions to murder all male infants recently born in Bethlehem. However, as destiny would have it, Mary and Joseph found their lodgings in a manger, not an inn. Herod’s henchmen didn’t think to look for an infant in such a location.

Another lovely custom associated with the Three Kings Day holiday centers around the evening meal. Traditionally, the supper served on this special day is delicious corn tamales accompanied by hot chocolate. This makes for a perfectly quintessential Mexican meal and one that is enjoyed by everyone in attendance.

Resource: Mexonline.com

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Mexico has given the world so much. Certain contributions that Mexico has bestowed upon us may surprise you. Read on to catch a small glimpse of Mexico’s many gifts.

The Poinsettia
Each year, just before Christmas, poinsettia plants start to make their annual appearance in grocery and retail chains nationwide. The poinsettia has become synonymous with the Christmas holiday season and many bring this plant as a gift when visiting friends and family. Indeed, the plant’s bright red flowers lend a joyous presence to any environment and holiday decorations don’t seem complete without them. This plant is native to Mexico and originally came from a particular region near present-day Taxco. The Aztecs, whose name for the plant was ‘cuetlaxochitl’ used the poinsettia medicinally and also as a dye.

	Joel Roberts Poinsett

The plant adopted its current name after the first U.S. ambassador to Mexico, Joel Poinsett (1825-1829). This dignitary was so impressed with the plant that he had it shipped to his plantation in South Carolina.

Some decades later, in California, Albert Ecke, started to sell the flowers from his florist stand near Hollywood, California. It is believed he found the plant growing wild, in the foothills of present day Los Angeles. Ecke noticed that the plant’s flowers would bloom in a profusion of bright red around the Christmas holiday season. The plant proved enormously popular as a holiday decoration and a multi-million dollar business was born. Today, the base of operations is located in Encinitas, California, where the poinsettia is grown in greenhouses and shipped world-wide.

Chocolate
Chocolate is one of life’s true pleasures. When Cortes met with Montezuma, the Emperor of the Aztec Empire in 1519, he was presented with a frothy drink, presented in a golden goblet that was accompanied by a tortoise-shell spoon. This drink, a spicy blend of chiles, vanilla and ground cacao beans, was called ‘xocoatl’ which translated, means bitter water. Of course, Cortes’ eyes were riveted by the golden vessel that the exotic drink was served in. However, after tasting the golden cup’s contents, his taste buds were captivated by the exotic and invigorating taste of this native drink. Cortes soon learned that the cocoa bean was a valued means of currency, its pods utilized to purchase a variety of goods. When Cortes returned to Spain, his ships were heavily laden with gold and silver but also, amongst the cargo was the cocoa bean. Once this magical bean made its way to Europe, its evolution included the addition of sugar which led, ultimately to the creation of, what we now call today, chocolate.

Vanilla
Vanilla has enchanted people with its sublime taste for hundreds of years. The first people to cultivate it were the Totonacs, an indigenous people who resided near the Gulf of Mexico in present day Veracruz. Native to Mexico, the vanilla bean is derived from the world’s only known edible orchid. Vanilla is used as a flavoring agent in many desserts as well as exotic perfumes. Vanilla is the world’s second most expensive spice after saffron and delights connoisseurs the world over with its fabulous taste and unique attributes. Today, much of vanilla’s production occurs in Madagascar in the Tropics, however, its birthplace will always be Mexico.

The Avocado
The ancient Aztecs held the avocado in high esteem. Today, this wondrous fruit is enjoyed daily the world over, frequently eaten as guacamole. The avocado is native to Mexico, Central America and South America. The Spanish conquistadors, upon discovering this fruit, applauded its attributes in letters written to the crown. They even discovered that the seed, when crushed, releases a red dye that works extremely well for inking documents. Some of these documents survive today. Another name for the avocado is ‘alligator pear’ due to the rough green texture of its skin and shape. The avocado is a nutrient-rich super food, containing more beta carotene than any other fruit and surprisingly, exceeding the banana in potassium content. As well, the avocado contains many other important vitamins and minerals. The Aztecs definitely knew a good thing when they tasted it!

Tequila
The history of tequila is an interesting one. For thousands of years in Mexico, a sacred drink called pulque was enjoyed, a fermented beverage. Pulque is made from a type of agave, the maguey, which is native to Mexico. Due to the plants appearance, oftentimes it is mistaken for a cacti. The agave was used historically by the indigenous peoples of Mexico for a wide variety of uses. The leaves produce fibers that can be made into rope, clothing and paper. Its flowers and stalks are edible and the sap of the plant produces a sweet liquid called ‘aguamiel’ (honey water).

The Spanish conquistadors, upon their arrival in Mexico, were keenly interested in the Aztec’s drink of choice, pulque. Curious and motivated, with their supplies of brandy running low, the Spaniards set out to make their own beverage from the agave. Promptly, they had distilling pots sent over from Spain and as a result, North America’s first indigenous distilled alcohol was born. Some decades later, a Spanish aristocrat discovered the blue agave plant which grows in a specific region of Mexico, in Jalisco state. It is the blue agave that Tequila is derived from. The rest is history, as they say. Today tequila is considered Mexico’s national drink and even has a city named in its honor, aptly named Tequila.

The Jumping Bean
Mexican jumping beans have delighted children for ages and definitely have a bit of magic about them. Placed in the hand, the little beans begin to ‘jump’, seemingly on their own accord. Many adults have fond childhood memories of being mesmerized by the jumping beans’ antics. Not quite a toy but definitely a curiosity, the jumping bean needs to be credited for untold hours of amusement. Interestingly, however, jumping beans are not beans at all. Deep in the deserts of mainland Mexico as well as in certain parts of Baja California, a native plant grows that gives ‘birth’, so to speak, to the jumping bean. This plant bears flowers that moths find particularly attractive. These moths lay their eggs on the plant, inside a seed capsule. As the egg begins to grow, it starts to move around as the moth larvae inside develops. This is the famous Mexican jumping bean. Should conditions be ripe, some months later, a moth will emerge from the ‘bean’ and the cycle carries on.

Chewing Gum
Deep in the heart of the Yucatan Peninsula grows the tropical sapodilla tree, whose trunk, when cut, oozes a milky white substance called chicle. This ingredient, in combination with flavorings and sugar, created the basis of our modern day chewing gum. Since time immemorial people have chewed on a variety of substances, ranging from sweet grass to wax to tobacco.

However, it is chicle that deserves credit for the gum industry as we know it today. And, curiously enough, it is General and Mexican President Antonio Lopez de Santa Anna who helped bring this event to fruition. While in exile in the U.S., Santa Anna thought he had a great business idea. He imported chicle from Mexico in hopes it could be used as a rubber substitute in carriage tires. Alas, the chicle proved not suitable for this purpose. However, a business acquaintance named Thomas Adams, who had purchased the chicle from Santa Anna, discovered another use for the product, namely chewing gum. A whole industry was born and ‘chiclets’ became available in every corner drug store, to the joy of children everywhere. Today, the vast majority of chewing gum is produced with a less expensive substitute than natural chicle. However, the ‘real thing’ can still be found in certain specialty shops nationwide.

Resources: Mexonline.com

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Located on the central plateau of Mexico, hidden to the naked eye, sits the world’s largest ancient pyramid. The town where this wonder is located is Cholula, a small village just outside Puebla. Upon first glance, one sees only the charming colonial church of La Iglesia de los Remedios, built in the 16th century. Amazingly, this church sits atop the Great Pyramid of Tepanapa, oftentimes referred to as the Cholula Pyramid. Hidden by vegetation, the hill upon which the church was built, actually houses the great pyramid.

The history of the pyramid, coupled with the momentous events which followed, is full of drama and mystery. Approximately one hundred years before Christ, the pyramid’s construction began. Cholula, by this time, was already one of Mexico’s largest cities, having been settled circa 1700 B.C. The pyramid’s construction along with affiliated temples, was carried out by various groups over hundreds of years. Its early period coincided with the great city of Teotihuacan’s development and power.

	Inside Cholula Pyramid

An important ceremonial and political center of the pre-Columbian world, Cholula mirrored Teotihuacan’s glory days of power. As well, its first subsequent demise coincided with that of Teotihuacan. But unlike the great city to the northwest, whose people mysteriously disappeared, some residual people remained in Cholula, not abandoning the city entirely. Expansion of the pyramid continued with the arrival of the Olmec-Xicallancas, who further added to the pyramid’s scale.

The Toltec-Chichimecas occupied Cholula next, circa 1100 A.D. By that time the great pyramid was already largely submerged underneath tree and dirt. The Toltecs chose to focus their activity on building new temples which would surround the area of the great pyramid. The Toltecs also brought with them their intense devotion of Quetzalcoatl. Cholula subsequently became a mecca for pilgrims from all over Mexico, who flocked to the city to pay homage to the feathered serpent God.

Quetzalcoatl, already a long established deity of the Mesoamerican world, undoubtedly helped to inspire the pyramid’s initial construction. However, with the arrival of the Toltecs, the cult of Quetzalcoatl truly flourished. Additionally, under the rule of the Toltecs, Cholula became a major center for trade and commerce. Having established strong ties with all other cities in the region, Cholula maintained its independence for a time from the ever expanding Aztec Empire.

However, the Aztecs eventually took control of Cholula. When Cortes arrived in 1519, the pyramid stood silent hidden under grass and stone. The city’s population at this time was 100,000 inhabitants. Legend advises an ambush was planned by the Cholulans against the Spanish invaders under the direction of Montezuma. No longer swayed by Cortes whom he initially believed to be the reincarnation of Quetzalcoatl, the Aztec ruler made one last attempt to save his empire. Unfortunately, Cortes learned of the plan and what followed next was horrific: the slaughter of 6,000 Cholulan residents took place under the brutal command of Cortes.

	Restored Stairway Cholula Pyramid

Temples were torn down and the ancient city of Cholula was destroyed. Cortes proclaimed that he would build a church in the area for each day of the year to match the number of temples destroyed. Drunk with power and with gold on his mind, Cortes failed to see the great pyramid.

Centuries elapsed before the pyramid was again discovered. In 1910, construction began on an insane asylum located at the base of the pyramid. Archaeologists once aware of the site began to survey and excavate. In the 1930′s, tunnels were made in order to better study the pyramid. These tunnels, which amount to an amazing five miles worth of passageways, zigzag in subterranean fashion, creating a labyrinth, not for the timid. These tunnels afford the visitor the opportunity of observing first-hand the various levels of construction. Delineated layers of shell and stone are visible. A total of four stages of construction occurred over hundreds of years. Although lit with lamps, the atmosphere is definitely haunting and you most assuredly want to exit before nightfall.

In addition to the tunnels, outside there are altars, stairways and platforms to explore. One can also see a portion of the pyramid which was reconstructed by archaeologists. Not only does the pyramid of Cholula represent the largest single structure in Mexico, it also bears the distinction of having the largest base of any pyramid in the world, exceeding the bases of the great pyramids in Egypt. The total acreage the pyramid occupies is 25 acres with a height reaching an impressive 181 feet. Each side of the structure’s base is over 1300 feet in length.

When visiting the great Pyramid of Cholula one is also afforded a magnificent view of the majestic snow-capped El Popocatepetl and Iztaccihuatl volcanoes. The pyramid of Cholula is truly a wondrous pre-Columbian gem. The site holds the potential of even greater discoveries and with only a small portion yet excavated, who knows what marvelous secrets the great pyramid has yet to reveal.

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First Printing, 387 pages
PublishAmerica (Baltimore) 200
Available from Amazon Books: Paperback

Frank Dolezal, fighting for Pancho Villa during the Mexican revolution, was captured by some of Venustiano Carranza’s troops, taken before a mockery of a trial, and was charged with “Treason against the legitimate government of Mexico.” With fifteen other prisoners he was taken to a clearing, offered a final cigarette, and then shot.

Miraculously he survived, rescued by Yaqui Indians who saw his leg sticking through the pile of dead bodies…the leg was slowly moving. A Yaqui medicine man cleaned Frank’s wounds and, even after gangrene had set in, restored him to health.

Frank’s son, Frank O. Dolezal, and his son’s daughter, Kathryn Dolezal Tyler, wrote this interesting adventure filled with intrigue, love, loyalty, deceit, suffering and survival, set for the most part in the early days of the Mexican revolution, much of it in and around Alamos (recent named as one of Mexico’s “pueblos mágicos“), a politically important town in northern Mexico, near the Pacific Coast.

Drums in the Hills — the title refers to the sophisticated communications system used by the Yaqui Indians — begins with young Frank leaving his native Austria to seek his fortune in Mexico. In Austria, in the military, he had been well educated, mastering several languages and learning how to handle both rifles and horses well. In Mexico City he became a partner in a clothing store.

One day a young woman, answering their ad for a job,

“entered and took possession of the room like a high-fashion model commanding the respect and awe of all whose eyes beheld her, beautiful beyond description…. Tall, with bronzed skin and penetrating dark eyes, she had the aristocratic features of breeding and privilege.”

Frank becomes obsessed with Clara, although Clara is in love with a popular young matador. When Frank, to impress Clara, takes formal training to be a matador, he is almost killed during his first public appearance, because he looks at Clara more than at the bull.

Don Antonio, Clara’s father, is aristocratic, arrogant, and detests foreigners.

Nevertheless, after Don Antonio moves the family from Mexico City to his large estate in distant Alamos (Don Porfirio had made him “master of all the land [Yaqui land] and people around him”), Austrian-born Frank follows her there and soon finds employment as a mechanic in Las Animas Silver Mine. Despite her father’s machinations to marry Clara off to a handsome and high ranking Mexican army officer, Frank steadily works his way into her heart, “getting love letters to Clara through an Indian messenger with the blessing of her sympathetic mother.”

Back in Mexico City, despite rumors of revolution, the capital was preparing for a great celebration — the 100th anniversary in 1910 of Mexican freedom from Spain, just as now, incidentally, Mexico City is preparing for another great celebration — the 200th anniversary in 2010 of Mexico’s freedom from Spain.

We also hear the stories of good doctors and of good priests, and of the long-suffering Indians, particularly the Yaqui and the Tarahumara. We discover, for example, that when a tax-collector a few years earlier was killed in Tarahumara territory, Don Porfirio sent in the Mexican army to essentially massacre the village.

“Some who survived the initial conflict tried to take refuge in an old church. When the soldiers found them they burned them alive. Over one thousand Indians were murdered to avenge the death of one tax collector.”

Pancho Villa, when he had ordered some stylish clothing at Frank’s store in Mexico City, had been impressed by Frank and later sought his help in the Mexican revolution. During this same time Frank was contacted by the German military and received a commission (now Captain Dolezal) in the German army (World War I was about to begin in Europe).

Frank’s experiences on board a German submarine, where he was studying the latest in communications, are also detailed her, although a bit of an aside from the central story.

Frank returned to Mexico and to Pancho Villa.

Fighting with Villa against Obregon, while trying to save artillery pieces in a retreat, “a barrage of bullets slammed into his legs, sheared off Frank’s kneecaps. Staggering, he fell face down in the mire. Then his mortally wounded horse collapsed on top of him.”

Recovering, disguised as a campesino, Frank limped into Mexico City to see his family; but leaving the city to return to the war, he was captured by Carranza’s troops and taken before a firing squad.

Toward the end of the Mexican Revolution, Frank crossed the border into the United States, where he found work in a meat-packing plant. “Things were going well until the workers asked for a raise. Management dealt with the problem by sending some of the workers to the border patrol to be deported as illegal aliens. Frank had the misfortune of being included in the group.”

He was turned over to United States Military Intelligence who, because of his wounds and appearance and accent, suspected he was involved in the German war efforts. As if his body had not been battered enough, at Fort Bliss he was staked out spread eagle on his back and then “A large funnel was placed in his mouth, into which guards poured buckets of water.” Further humiliation followed. He was tied to a post with his hands above his head and then he was whipped with a “cat o’ nine tails” until he fainted. When he came to he was hung up by his thumbs and left there for the long and cold January night. His torturers thought that would kill him, but Frank survived and two years later he was handed five dollars and released.

I like stories about Mexican history, and I enjoyed Drums in the Hills.

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A country rich in history, tradition and culture, Mexico is made up of 31 states and one federal district. It is the third largest country in Latin America and has the largest population—more than 100 million—making it the home of more Spanish speakers than any other nation in the world.

Despite the towering reputation of Egypt’s Great Pyramids at Giza, the Americas actually contain more pyramid structures than the rest of the planet combined. Civilizations like the Olmec, Maya, Aztec and Inca all built pyramids to house their deities, as well as to bury their kings. In many of their great city-states, temple-pyramids formed the center of public life and were the site of much holy ritual, including human sacrifice. The best known Latin American pyramids include the Pyramid of the Sun and the Pyramid of the Moon at Teotihuacán in central Mexico, the Castillo at Chichén Itzá in the Yucatan, the Great Pyramid in the Aztec capital of Tenochtitlan, the Pyramid at Cholula and the Inca’s great temple at Cuzco in Peru.

Amazing. Surely you’ve enjoyed this as much as I have!LOL

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A country rich in history, tradition and culture, Mexico is made up of 31 states and one federal district. It is the third largest country in Latin America and has the largest population—more than 100 million—making it the home of more Spanish speakers than any other nation in the world.

Mexico, famous for his dramatic confrontation with the Spanish conquistador Hernán Cortés.

In 1502 Montezuma succeeded his uncle Ahuitzotl as the leader of an empire that had reached its greatest extent, stretching to what is now Honduras and Nicaragua, but that was weakened by the resentment of the subject tribes to the increasing demands for tribute and victims for the religious sacrifices. Montezuma was commander of the army and organized extensive expeditions of conquest in deference to Huitzilopochtli, the god of war and of the sun. Through astrologers, the god instilled in the emperor a kind of fatalism in the face of an uncertain future.

The Azetcs feared and expected the return of another important deity, Quetzalcóatl, the white, bearded god who would rule over the empire. Instead, the white, bearded Cortés arrived; he was aware of this fear and used it to his advantage in his expedition across Mexico. Montezuma tried to buy off Cortés, but the Spaniard made alliances with those subject tribes who hated Aztec rule. Welcomed into the capital city of Tenochtitlán by Montezuma, Cortés realized it was a trap and, instead, made the emperor his prisoner, believing that the Aztecs would not attack as long as he held Montezuma captive. Montezuma’s submission to the Spaniards, however, had eroded the respect of his people. According to Spanish accounts, he attempted to speak to his subjects and was assailed with stones and arrows, suffering wounds from which he died three days later. The Aztecs, however, believed the Spaniards had murdered their emperor, and Cortés’s force was nearly destroyed as it tried to sneak out of Tenochtitlán at night.

Britannica.com.

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Modern History Sourcebook:
Francisco Madero:
The Plan of San Luis Potosi, November 20, 1910

The Mexican presidential election of 1910 was stolen when Porfirio Diaz – the longtime dictator, had his opponent Madero arrested and imprisoned. Madero took refuge infled to San Antonio, and issued the Plan of San Luis Potosi calling for the nullification of the elections and upon Mexicans to take up arms against the government. The date of its issue marks the beginning of the Mexican Revolution.

People, in their constant efforts for the triumph of the ideal of liberty and justice, are forced, at precise historical moments, to make their greatest sacrifices.

Our beloved country has reached one of those moments. A force of tyranny which we Mexicans were not accustomed to suffer after we won our independence oppresses us in such a manner that it has become intolerable. In exchange for that tyranny we are offered peace, but peace full of shame for the Mexican nation, because its basis is not law, but force; because its object is not the aggrandizement and prosperity of the country, but to enrich a small group who, abusing their influence, have converted the public charges into fountains of exclusively personal benefit, unscrupulously exploiting the manner of lucrative concessions and contracts.

The legislative and judicial powers are completely subordinated to the executive; the division of powers, the sovereignty of the States, the liberty of the common councils, and the rights of the citizens exist only in writing in our great charter; but, as a fact, it may almost be said that martial law constantly exists in Mexico; the administration of justice, instead of imparting protection to the weak, merely serves to legalize the plunderings committed by the strong; the judges instead of being the representatives of justice, are the agents of the executive, whose interests they faithfully serve; the chambers of the union have no other will than that of the dictator; the governors of the States are designated by him and they in their turn designate and impose in like manner the municipal authorities.

From this it results that the whole administrative, judicial, and legislative machinery obeys a single will, the caprice of General Porfirio Diaz, who during his long administration has shown that the principal motive that guides him is to maintain himself in power and at any cost.

For many years profound discontent has been felt throughout the Republic, due to such a system of government, but General Diaz with great cunning and perseverance, has succeeded in annihilating all independent elements, so that it was not possible to organize any sort of movement to take from him the power of which he made such bad use. The evil constantly became worse, and the decided eagerness of General Diaz to impose a successor upon the nations in the person of Mr. Ramon Corral carried that evil to its limit and caused many of us Mexicans, although lacking recognized political standing, since it had been impossible to acquire it during the 36 years of dictatorship, to throw ourselves into the struggle to recover the sovereignty of the people and their rights on purely democratic grounds….

In Mexico, as a democratic Republic, the public power can have no other origin nor other basis than the will of the people, and the latter can not be subordinated to formulas to be executed in a fraudulent manner. . . ,

For this reason the Mexican people have protested against the illegality of the last election and, desiring to use successively all the recourses offered by the laws of the Republic, in due form asked for the nullification of the election by the Chamber of Deputies, notwithstanding they recognized no legal origin in said body and knew beforehand that, as its members were not the representatives of the people, they would carry out the will of General Diaz, to whom exclusively they owe their investiture.

In such a state of affairs the people, who are the only sovereign, also protested energetically against the election in imposing manifestations in different parts of the Republic; and if the latter were not general throughout the national territory, It was due to the terrible pressure exercised by the Government, which always quenches in blood any democratic manifestation, as happened in Puebla, Vera Cruz, Tlaxcala, and in other places.

But this violent and illegal system can no longer subsist.

I have very well realized that if the people have designated me as their candidate. for the Presidency it is not because they have had an opportunity to discover in me the qualities of a statesman or of a ruler, but the virility of the patriot determined to sacrifice himself, if need be, to obtain liberty and to help the people free themselves from the odious tyranny that oppresses them.

From the moment I threw myself into the democratic struggle I very well knew that General Diaz would not bow to the will of the nation, and the noble Mexican people, in following me to the polls, also knew perfectly the outrage that awaited them; but in spite of it, the people gave the cause of liberty a numerous contingent of martyrs when they were necessary and with wonderful stoicism went to the polls and received every sort of molestation.

But such conduct was indispensable to show to the whole world that the Mexican people are fit for democracy, that they are thirsty for liberty, and that their present rulers do not measure up to their aspirations.

Besides, the attitude of the people before and during the election, as well as afterwards, shows clearly that they reject with energy the Government of General Diaz and that, if those electoral rights had been respected, I would have been elected for President of the Republic.

Therefore, and in echo of the national will, I declare the late election illegal and, the Republic being accordingly without rulers, provisionally assume the Presidency of the Republic until the people designate their rulers pursuant to the law. In order to attain this end, it is necessary to eject from power the audacious usurpers whose only title of legality involves a scandalous and immoral fraud.

With all honesty I declare that it would be a weakness on my part and treason to the people, who have placed their confidence in me, not to put myself at the front of my fellow citizens, who anxiously call me from all parts of the country, to compel General Diaz by force of arms, to respect the national will.

Source:

From United States Congress, Senate Subcommittee on Foreign Relations, Revolutions in Mexico, 62nd Congress, 2nd Session (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1913), pp. 730-736, passim.

This text is part of the Internet Modern History Sourcebook. The Sourcebook is a collection of public domain and copy-permitted texts for introductory level classes in modern European and World history.

Unless otherwise indicated the specific electronic form of the document is copyright. Permission is granted for electronic copying, distribution in print form for educational purposes and personal use. If you do reduplicate the document, indicate the source. No permission is granted for commercial use of the Sourcebook.

© Paul Halsall, July 1998
halsall@murray.fordham.edu

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20th Century Mexico by Chris Michael Ratliff

I came across this wonderful Historic Mexican Archive and hope that you have as much fun with it as I have.

By the end of the 1800′s Mexico was still under the rule of one of history’s longest running dictators, Porfirio Díaz. While Díaz may have brought modernization of sorts to Mexico, the revolution that would oust him, the first social revolution of the twentieth century, would usher in the new age.

Despite the mask of modernization during Díaz’s rule, by 1910 the average Mexican was worse off than in 1810. While foreigners owned many of the factories, transportation systems, and mines, most of Mexican land was owned by a few Mexican families. Some owned land the size of small countries. Mexicans worked for these foreigners and land owners under paltry conditions. Malnourished, underpaid, overworked, and impoverished, the people of Mexico badly needed change.

The first signs of unrest came through labor unrest. In 1906, at Colonel William Green’s Cananea Consolidated Copper Company, Mexican workers struck over unfair wages and conditions. Arizona Rangers were called in and given power by Mexican officials to suppress the workers, showing Díaz’s willingness to give foreigners power over Mexicans. A second strike at the Rio Blanco textile mills, in 1907, resulted in Federal troops firing point blank into a crowd of striking workers, killing over a hundred men, women, and children.

In 1904, three Mexico exiles, the Flores Mag´on brothers and Camilo Arriaga publish REGENERACION, attacking Díaz’s regime. After being jailed, they went to the U.S. to publish REGENERACION. During a 1908 interview, Díaz announced he would not seek re-election in 1910 and he would welcome opposition. This announcement led to heightened political activities among liberals. The Anti Re-electionist party candidate, Francisco Madero, supported a democracy. He was from a wealthy land-holding family and was an early supporter ofREGENERACION. On Election Day Díaz had Madero imprisoned, Díaz was re-elected and Madero escaped to the U.S.

While in exile Madero and his supporters drafted a plan that called for all Mexicans to rise up in revolt on November 20, 1910. Madero made himself President. The revolution didn’t exactly begin on that date but soon afterwards uprisings grew until the whole country was in revolt. The turning point in the revolt against Díaz happened on May 13, 1911 when revolutionary generals Pascaul Orozco and Pancho Villa captured Ciudad Juárez, twelve days later Díaz resigned and fled the country. Following Díaz’ departure Madero won a new election and tried to instill democracy to Mexico.

In 1911, revolutionary leader Emiliano Zapata issued his Plan de Ayala in response to Madero’s disappointing reforms. The Zapatistas wanted agrarian reforms, and soon began an armed struggle against the government. By 1913, Mexico City was surrounded by rebel forces. Madero was betrayed by one of his generals, Victoriano Huerta. Huerta ordered the murder of Madero and became dictator. Opposed to Huerta was the Constitutionalists to the north and the Zapatistas to the south. The years 1913-14 showed an escalation in the Revolution.

The events that led to Huerta’s overthrow in 1914, was started when U.S. president Wilson sent marines into Veracruz to occupy the city. While Huerta sent troops as a show of force, rebel forces quickly filled the vacuum left by federal troops. By July, Huerta had resigned. Venustiano Carranza of the Constitutionalist party filled the role of First chief after Huerta’s overthrow. His bitter enemies were the Zapatistas and the Villistas. During 1916, Pancho Villa raided some U.S. border towns, provoking the U.S. to send Gen. Pershing into Mexico to pursue Villa, but never finding the Mexican general.

In 1917, the revolutionary leaders drew up their constitution, it would be a radical constitution for its day. It strongly supported labor unions, socialized property, contained strong anti-clerical measures, and was extremely nationalistic in nature. Carranza reluctantly accepted it. Carranza didn’t enforce the constitution; in fact, he distributed a very small amount of land and was slow toward social reform. His reform record was purposely lower than his hated enemy and predecessor, Huerta. The end of the armed struggle happened soon after Carranza had Zapata killed in 1919. In 1920 Alvaro Obregón revolted against Carranza and overthrew him. Villa made peace with the government and retired. Obregón started to implement the constitution; he spent more for education than any of his predecessor. Obregón favored CROM, the national labor union, and its leader Luis Morones, but not radical labor unions. The 1924 election brought Plutarco Calles to power. Calles was anti-clerical, so much so he closed many church institutions, deported priests. Whereupon the Church declared a strike , thus starting the Cristero Rebellion. Catholic rebels, the Cristeros, attacked government forces, they destroyed government property such as schools. By 1929 a compromise was reached.

In July 1928, Obregón won re-election, but before he could retain office, he was assassinated by a Catholic fanatic. Afterwards Calles pulled strings for three puppet presidents. By 1929 Calles had organized the PNR (Partido National Revolucionario), now the PRI (Partido National Institucional). Mexico’s government shifted to the right under Calles’ puppets and progressive changes slowed until Cárdenas took office in 1934. The PRI can be seen as a coalition of centrist parties rather than one political party. From 1929-87, the PRI , organized by occupational sectors, contained the left, right, and center.

Cárdenas was a left-wing president; he distributed more land than any of his predecessor sand he was very much pro-labor, but his greatest triumph was the nationalization of Mexican oil companies. Since oil was first discovered in Mexico, foreigners, specifically American and British companies, owned it. By 1911, 12.5 million barrels of oil were produced in Mexico, by 1921, 193 million barrels, making Mexico the second largest oil producer. First Cárdenas created STPRM (Petroleum Workers Union of the Mexican Republic) in 1936, and placed demands on oil companies, declared that the companies exploited Mexican workers. He also created the PEMEX (Petróleos Méxicanos) as a state oil enterprise. He supported the CTM (Confederation of Mexican Workers). In 1938, Cárdenas nationalized Mexican petrol, creating bitter U.S.-Mexican relations until World War .

The Cárdenas Presidency was the most radical of the Revolution, the election of 1940 marked the end of his presidency and of the revolution. After Cárdenas’ term, the Mexican political leaders changed from social reformers to economist and industrial capitalists. President Avila Camacho declared war on the side of the allies in May 1942, after two Mexican tankers had been torpedoed by Germans. Mexico’s main contribution to the war was its raw materials. The 1950′s saw social reforms slowed down considerably. Although industrialization grew, the work force grew faster, leaving many unemployed. During the 1960′s, urban populations grew to surpass that of the rural population. Health programs made progress in rural areas, reducing tuberculosis, polio and almost eradicating malaria. Low cost housing projects were started in the vastly growing urban areas, to compete with Mexico’s fast population growth.

Social unrest also plagued Mexico during the 1960′s. In 1968, the Olympic Games were held in Mexico City. In addition to earlier student demonstrations against police corruption, shortly before the games anti-government rallies were held. In October at Tlatelolco, troops and police showed and opened fire on a large group of demonstrators. The Government claimed 43 dead, although some Mexicans claimed hundreds died.

Mexican oil production was low after nationalization, but by 1973, production was back to the level it was at 1921. When OPEC formed and the price of oil rose, Mexico’s debt increased each year, and even more so when President Echeverría devalued the peso. By 1979, crude oil was up to 511 million barrels, and much of that going to the U.S. In the early 1980′s corruption and inflation plagued Mexico. Increase in gas, food, and electricity costs went along with Mexico’s problems. In addition to these calamities, a huge earthquake hit Mexico City in September 1985, killing around 8,000 people and totaling about four billion in damage. Another problem due to Mexico’s economic woes is the flow of undocumented workers in the U.S.

The latest problems in Mexico is the criticism of the one party system. In 1987, some of the left within the PRI split and formed the FDN (National Democratic Front). Ernest Zedillo rebuilt the PRI coalition with the right and center factions. Considering the 1994 murder of a PRI party leader Mario Ruiz Massieu, believed to have been executed by party members, and the recent uprisings in Chiapas, the future is still uncertain for Mexico. Ernesto Zedillo, chosen as the PRI nominee and, thus, President of Mexico, after the murder of Colosio is wrestling with how to keep the system functioning.

Works Cited

Meyer, Michael and Sherman, William. THE COURSE OF MEXICAN HISTORY. Oxford University Press. New York, 1987.

Mabry, Donald J. “Mexican Anticlerics, Bishops, Cristeros, and the Devout during the 1920′s: A Scholarly Debate”. JOURNAL OF CHURCH AND STATE. Vol. 20, no.1, 1978, 81-92.

Shafer, Robert J. and Mabry, Donald J. “Mexican Oil and Nationalism”.Neighbors-Mexico and the United States. Chicago, Nelson-Hall Publishers, 1981.

Baker, George and Galindo, Alfonso. “PRI Victory?”. G.BAKER@CGNET.COM

By the end of the 1800′s Mexico was still under the rule of one of history’s longest running dictators, Porfirio Díaz. While Díaz may have brought modernization of sorts to Mexico, the revolution that would oust him, the first social revolution of the twentieth century, would usher in the new age.

Despite the mask of modernization during Díaz’s rule, by 1910 the average Mexican was worse off than in 1810. While foreigners owned many of the factories, transportation systems, and mines, most of Mexican land was owned by a few Mexican families. Some owned land the size of small countries. Mexicans worked for these foreigners and land owners under paltry conditions. Malnourished, underpaid, overworked, and impoverished, the people of Mexico badly needed change.

The first signs of unrest came through labor unrest. In 1906, at Colonel William Green’s Cananea Consolidated Copper Company, Mexican workers struck over unfair wages and conditions. Arizona Rangers were called in and given power by Mexican officials to suppress the workers, showing Díaz’s willingness to give foreigners power over Mexicans. A second strike at the Rio Blanco textile mills, in 1907, resulted in Federal troops firing point blank into a crowd of striking workers, killing over a hundred men, women, and children.

In 1904, three Mexico exiles, the Flores Mag´on brothers and Camilo Arriaga publish REGENERACION, attacking Díaz’s regime. After being jailed, they went to the U.S. to publish REGENERACION. During a 1908 interview, Díaz announced he would not seek re-election in 1910 and he would welcome opposition. This announcement led to heightened political activities among liberals. The Anti Re-electionist party candidate, Francisco Madero, supported a democracy. He was from a wealthy land-holding family and was an early supporter ofREGENERACION. On Election Day Díaz had Madero imprisoned, Díaz was re-elected and Madero escaped to the U.S.

While in exile Madero and his supporters drafted a plan that called for all Mexicans to rise up in revolt on November 20, 1910. Madero made himself President. The revolution didn’t exactly begin on that date but soon afterwards uprisings grew until the whole country was in revolt. The turning point in the revolt against Díaz happened on May 13, 1911 when revolutionary generals Pascaul Orozco and Pancho Villa captured Ciudad Juárez, twelve days later Díaz resigned and fled the country. Following Díaz’ departure Madero won a new election and tried to instill democracy to Mexico.

In 1911, revolutionary leader Emiliano Zapata issued his Plan de Ayala in response to Madero’s disappointing reforms. The Zapatistas wanted agrarian reforms, and soon began an armed struggle against the government. By 1913, Mexico City was surrounded by rebel forces. Madero was betrayed by one of his generals, Victoriano Huerta. Huerta ordered the murder of Madero and became dictator. Opposed to Huerta was the Constitutionalists to the north and the Zapatistas to the south. The years 1913-14 showed an escalation in the Revolution.

The events that led to Huerta’s overthrow in 1914, was started when U.S. president Wilson sent marines into Veracruz to occupy the city. While Huerta sent troops as a show of force, rebel forces quickly filled the vacuum left by federal troops. By July, Huerta had resigned. Venustiano Carranza of the Constitutionalist party filled the role of First chief after Huerta’s overthrow. His bitter enemies were the Zapatistas and the Villistas. During 1916, Pancho Villa raided some U.S. border towns, provoking the U.S. to send Gen. Pershing into Mexico to pursue Villa, but never finding the Mexican general.

In 1917, the revolutionary leaders drew up their constitution, it would be a radical constitution for its day. It strongly supported labor unions, socialized property, contained strong anti-clerical measures, and was extremely nationalistic in nature. Carranza reluctantly accepted it. Carranza didn’t enforce the constitution; in fact, he distributed a very small amount of land and was slow toward social reform. His reform record was purposely lower than his hated enemy and predecessor, Huerta. The end of the armed struggle happened soon after Carranza had Zapata killed in 1919. In 1920 Alvaro Obregón revolted against Carranza and overthrew him. Villa made peace with the government and retired. Obregón started to implement the constitution; he spent more for education than any of his predecessor. Obregón favored CROM, the national labor union, and its leader Luis Morones, but not radical labor unions. The 1924 election brought Plutarco Calles to power. Calles was anti-clerical, so much so he closed many church institutions, deported priests. Whereupon the Church declared a strike , thus starting the Cristero Rebellion. Catholic rebels, the Cristeros, attacked government forces, they destroyed government property such as schools. By 1929 a compromise was reached.

In July 1928, Obregón won re-election, but before he could retain office, he was assassinated by a Catholic fanatic. Afterwards Calles pulled strings for three puppet presidents. By 1929 Calles had organized the PNR (Partido National Revolucionario), now the PRI (Partido National Institucional). Mexico’s government shifted to the right under Calles’ puppets and progressive changes slowed until Cárdenas took office in 1934. The PRI can be seen as a coalition of centrist parties rather than one political party. From 1929-87, the PRI , organized by occupational sectors, contained the left, right, and center.

Cárdenas was a left-wing president; he distributed more land than any of his predecessor sand he was very much pro-labor, but his greatest triumph was the nationalization of Mexican oil companies. Since oil was first discovered in Mexico, foreigners, specifically American and British companies, owned it. By 1911, 12.5 million barrels of oil were produced in Mexico, by 1921, 193 million barrels, making Mexico the second largest oil producer. First Cárdenas created STPRM (Petroleum Workers Union of the Mexican Republic) in 1936, and placed demands on oil companies, declared that the companies exploited Mexican workers. He also created the PEMEX (Petróleos Méxicanos) as a state oil enterprise. He supported the CTM (Confederation of Mexican Workers). In 1938, Cárdenas nationalized Mexican petrol, creating bitter U.S.-Mexican relations until World War .

The Cárdenas Presidency was the most radical of the Revolution, the election of 1940 marked the end of his presidency and of the revolution. After Cárdenas’ term, the Mexican political leaders changed from social reformers to economist and industrial capitalists. President Avila Camacho declared war on the side of the allies in May 1942, after two Mexican tankers had been torpedoed by Germans. Mexico’s main contribution to the war was its raw materials. The 1950′s saw social reforms slowed down considerably. Although industrialization grew, the work force grew faster, leaving many unemployed. During the 1960′s, urban populations grew to surpass that of the rural population. Health programs made progress in rural areas, reducing tuberculosis, polio and almost eradicating malaria. Low cost housing projects were started in the vastly growing urban areas, to compete with Mexico’s fast population growth.

Social unrest also plagued Mexico during the 1960′s. In 1968, the Olympic Games were held in Mexico City. In addition to earlier student demonstrations against police corruption, shortly before the games anti-government rallies were held. In October at Tlatelolco, troops and police showed and opened fire on a large group of demonstrators. The Government claimed 43 dead, although some Mexicans claimed hundreds died.

Mexican oil production was low after nationalization, but by 1973, production was back to the level it was at 1921. When OPEC formed and the price of oil rose, Mexico’s debt increased each year, and even more so when President Echeverría devalued the peso. By 1979, crude oil was up to 511 million barrels, and much of that going to the U.S. In the early 1980′s corruption and inflation plagued Mexico. Increase in gas, food, and electricity costs went along with Mexico’s problems. In addition to these calamities, a huge earthquake hit Mexico City in September 1985, killing around 8,000 people and totaling about four billion in damage. Another problem due to Mexico’s economic woes is the flow of undocumented workers in the U.S.

The latest problems in Mexico is the criticism of the one party system. In 1987, some of the left within the PRI split and formed the FDN (National Democratic Front). Ernest Zedillo rebuilt the PRI coalition with the right and center factions. Considering the 1994 murder of a PRI party leader Mario Ruiz Massieu, believed to have been executed by party members, and the recent uprisings in Chiapas, the future is still uncertain for Mexico. Ernesto Zedillo, chosen as the PRI nominee and, thus, President of Mexico, after the murder of Colosio is wrestling with how to keep the system functioning.

Works Cited

Meyer, Michael and Sherman, William. THE COURSE OF MEXICAN HISTORY. Oxford University Press. New York, 1987.

Mabry, Donald J. “Mexican Anticlerics, Bishops, Cristeros, and the Devout during the 1920′s: A Scholarly Debate”. JOURNAL OF CHURCH AND STATE. Vol. 20, no.1, 1978, 81-92.

Shafer, Robert J. and Mabry, Donald J. “Mexican Oil and Nationalism”.Neighbors-Mexico and the United States. Chicago, Nelson-Hall Publishers, 1981.

Resource: Historical Text Archive by Chris Michael Ratcliff

Posted by AetnaJo B on September 14,2011.

Baker, George and Galindo, Alfonso. “PRI Victory?”. G.BAKER@CGNET.COM

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History Of Mexico’s Most Famous Culinary Preparation:

Most people associate mole with either with Puebla or Oaxaca , but the origin of mole poblano, the thick, rich, chocolate-tinged sauce made so famous in the colonial mountain city of Puebla, Mexico, is still disputed, and generally involves these two versions of the legend:

The first says that 16^th Century nuns from the Convent of Santa Rosa in Puebla de los Angeles, upon learning that the Archbishop was coming for a visit, went into a panic because they had nothing to serve him. The nuns started praying desperately and an angel came to inspire them. They began chopping and grinding and roasting, mixing different types of chiles together with spices, day-old bread, nuts, a little chocolate and approximately 20 other ingredients..

	Mole Poblano: Pollo con Arroz

This concoction boiled for hours and was reduced to the thick, sweet, rich and fragrant mole sauce we know today. To serve in the mole, they killed the only meat they had, an old turkey, and the strange sauce was poured over it. The archbishop was more than happy with his banquet and the nuns saved face. Little did they know they were creating the Mexican National dish for holidays and feasts, and that today, millions of people worldwide have at least heard of mole poblano.

The other legend states that mole came from pre-hispanic times and that Aztec king, Moctezuma, thinking the conquistadors were gods, served mole to Cortez at a banquet to receive them. This story probably gained credibility because the word mole comes from the Nahuatl word “milli” which means sauce or “concoction”. Another connection could be that chocolate was widely used in pre-columbian mexico, so people jumped to that conclusion.

Diana Kennedy, the famous cookbook author and television chef, adds a third, less plausible version in her book The Cuisines of Mexico, [Harper & Row:New York] 1972, (p.199-200), “This time it was Fray Pascual who was preparing the banquet at the convent where he (the archbishop) was going to eat. Turkeys were cooking in cazuelas on the fire; as Fray Pascual, scolding his assistants for their untidiness, gathered up al the spices they had been using, and putting them together on a tray, a sudden gust of wind swept across the kitchen and they spilled over the cazuelas.” Thus mixing together such an unheard-of combination of ingredients.

	Poblano Kitchen

What do the real experts say? “The idea of using chocolate as a flavoring in cooked food would have been horrifying to the Aztecs—just as Christians could not conceive of using communion wine to make, say, coq au vin. In all the pages of Sahagun that deal with Aztec cuisine and with chocolate, there is not a hint that it ever entered into an Aztec dish. Yet, today many food writers and gourmets consider one particular dish, the famous pavo in mole poblano, which contains chocolate, to represent the pinnacle of the Mexican cooking tradition. …the place of origin of the dish and its sauce, the Colonial Puebla de los Angeles; this beautiful city, unlike others in central Mexico, has no Aztec foundations – and neither does the dish, regardless of what food writers may say.” Taken from The True History of Chocolate, Sophie D. Coe and Michael D. Coe [Thames and Hudson: London] 1996 (p. 216-7).

There is no greater expert on pre-hispanic Mesoamerica than Michael Coe and this detective is convinced.Case closed (for now) on the mystery of the origins of mole poblano.

THE OTHER MOLES

No story about mole poblano would be complete without talking a little bit about the other moles. There is a lot of misinformation about mole out there, in general. Most culinary experts agree, there are 6 moles and as Susana Trilling describes in her book, My Search for the Seventh Mole: A story with Recipes from Oaxaca, Mexico, [self-published, 1997], she is looking for that elusive seventh mole. Does she find it? You’ll have to read the book to find out, and the recipes are fantastic, so you can try your own mole at home, if you dare.

	Enchiladas con Mole

All moles are very time consuming, labor intensive and require many ingredients. Some sources state that some moles have as many as 100 ingredients, but that’s an exaggeration. But 30 ingredients is not unheard of, and some mole recipes contain 10 different varieties of chiles alone. Other ingredients include: peanuts, almonds, fried bread, plantains, lard, sugar, bittersweet chocolate, cinnamon, cloves and many more. For those willing to give it a try, here is a less elaborate recipe for Mole Poblano with chicken.

Each Mexican woman has her own mole recipe, probably passed down from her mother. Because mole takes so much time to prepare, it is usually made in huge batches, too large for the home blender to handle. Therefore, women take their mole ingredients, all cooked and ready to blend, to large “molinos” or grinders in their neighborhood. The mole is passed through the grinders and comes out smoother than you could get from your home blender. It is not unusual to see women walking home from the molinos with buckets of mole for a fiesta.

And be sure to have plenty of napkins nearby when eating any mole. As you dip your warm, homemade tortilla into the wonderful sauce, you are bound to take some home with you on your shirt, your arms and under your fingernails. Now you know you’re enjoying mole!

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