Mexican Wholesale

Who were the Aztecs from Mexico.

This is the story of a wandering tribe from Northern Mexico who through bravery, trickery, cruelty, genius became a great civilization.

There are stories to read, explanations to understand, pictures to think about, ancient writings to decode, pictures of artefacts and temples … even a giant sunstone.

By 1376, the city was growing quickly … they built larger and larger temples … people came from miles around to live in their city … Tenochtitlan. They chose a man called  Acamapichtli as their first emperor. He ruled until 1395.

The city and the Aztecs were all powerful… an EMPIRE.

By 1519 there were about 60,000 people in the city every day.

The Aztecs brought their many gods and goddesses with them.

As a farming people, the Aztec knew the forces of nature and worshiped them as gods. Most important was their sun god, Huitzilopochtli. The Aztecs also used him as their god of war.

They believed that their ‘good’ gods should be kept strong to keep away the ‘bad’ gods. They kept them strong by making human sacrifices.

They had many stories about their gods.   Read some of them.

Aztec Gods

Aztec god

Before the Sun that now shines brightly over Mexico came into being, there had been other suns; four in all.

Each sun died away in turn before our present Sun appeared.

The fourth Sun, Chalchuitlicu, had been a water goddess, copper-coloured and dressed in emerald green.

For hundreds of years she provided light and warmth; and in that time the first men and women appeared on Earth.

But other gods grew jealous of the Sun God; some reproached her for giving fire to humans — for they did not always use it wisely.

Tezcatlipoca upsets Chalchuitlicu and causes a flood.

One night, the black God of Darkness, Tezcatlipoca, began to torment the gentle copper Sun while she was resting in the gloom. He said she’d grown too vain and selfish.

In her hurt at these false words, Chalchuitlicu burst into tears. The tears put out her light and then the sky rained down upon the Earth in torrents.

The land vanished into darkness beneath a mighty flood which drowned all  human life: every man and woman turned into fish; all, that is, save one lone family which survived to start the human race again.

The gods make dry land appear …

When the sky thus fell on Earth, the gods opened up four roads beneath the land, where they created four giants and some sturdy trees. And then, together — the gods, the trees, the giants — all tried to lift the Earth from under the vales of tears.

They heaved and pushed until the land rose upwards and the waters fell away. At last they managed to fasten the land securely to the sky.

Now there was only darkness …

But the Earth was still plunged into utter gloom; it had no dawn, no dusk, no sunlit days. The vales of tears were salty; there was thus no fresh water, for no Sun appeared to draw the tears back up to heaven and change them into rain.

Aztec god

Tlaloc was the Aztec rain god

His name means He Who Makes Things Sprout.

Tlaloc was the eighth ruler of the days and the ninth lord of the nights.

Tlaloc was pictured as a man wearing a net of clouds, a crown of heron feathers, foam sandals and carrying rattles to make thunder.

Tlaloc lived in a place the Aztecs called Tlalocan. He lived there with  his companion, Chalchiuhtlicue (She Who Wears a Jade Skirt), also called Matlalcueye (She Who Wears a Green Skirt), the goddess of freshwater lakes and streams. Tlalocan was also the place where all people who had drowned ‘lived’.

Part of The Teocalli (Great Temple) at Tenochtitlan, the Aztec capital, was dedicated to Tlaloc, and was painted in white and blue.

Tlaloc was  greatly feared.

He could send out the rain or provoke drought and hunger.

Aztec god

He hurled lightning upon the earth and unleashed the devastating hurricanes.

It was believed that he could send down to the earth different kinds of rain which would help crops grow or destroy them.

Certain illnesses, such as dropsy, leprosy, and rheumatism, were said to be caused by Tlaloc.

Quetzalcoatl

(from quetzalli, “precious feather,” and coatl, “snake”), the Feathered Serpent, was one of the major gods of the Aztecs.

Quetzalcoatl was the god of morning and the evening star.

Aztec god

As the morning and evening star, Quetzalcoatl was the symbol of death and resurrection.

With his friend, Xolotl, a dog-headed god, he was said to have descended to the underground hell of Mictlan to gather the bones of the ancient dead. Those bones he smeared with his own blood, giving birth to the men who inhabit the present universe.

Quetzalcoatl was often shown as a man with a beard named Ehecatl, the wind god. Sometimes he was shown wearing a mask with two protruding tubes (through which the wind blew) and a conical hat.

The temple Quetzalcoatl at Tenochtitlan, the Aztec capital, was a round building, a shape that fitte

d Ehecatl. Circular temples were believed to please Ehecatl because they offered no sharp obstacles to the wind.

TEZCATLIPOCA -

The god of the Great Bear constellation and of the night sky.

Tezcatlipoca’s animal disguise, was the jaguar, the spotted skin of which was compared to the starry sky.

Tezcatlipoca was usually drawn with a stripe of black paint across his face and an obsidian (black glass ) mirror in place of one of his feet (his name means Smoking Mirror).

Sometimes drawings show  Tezcatlipoca with his mirror on his chest.

In it he saw everything, he knew all the deeds and thoughts of men.
He was said to appear at crossroads at night to challenge warriors.

He presided over the telpochcalli (“young men’s houses”), district schools in which the sons of the common people received an education and military training.

He was the protector of slaves, he severely punished masters who ill-treated “Tezcatlipoca’s beloved children.” He rewarded goodness by giving riches and fame, and he punished wrongdoers by sending them sickness (e.g. leprosy) or by giving them poverty and slavery.

Every year, during the fifth month, the priest selected a young and handsome war prisoner. For one year he lived in princely luxury, pretending to be the god. Four beautiful girls dressed as goddesses were chosen as his companions. On the appointed feast day he climbed the steps of a small temple while breaking flutes that he had played. At the top he was sacrificed by the removal of his heart! What a price to pay!

I hope you have enjoyed learning this part of the Aztecs and Mexican history.

The artist José Guadalupe Posada was born in 1852 in Aguacalientes, Mexico. Many consider Posada the founder of modern Mexican art. As well, Posada is credited with educating the general populace concerning the political injustices of the day which ultimately culminated in the Mexican Revolution of 1910. His beginnings were humble, being born the seventh son to working-class parents of Indian descent.

Posada is most remembered for his engraved illustrations of calaveras (skeletons) set in political satire. His work remains vital today, oftentimes utilized to commemorate the Dia de los Muertos (Day of the Dead) holiday, celebrated throughout Mexico each year on November 1st and 2nd..

Posada In Front of His Taller

Posada’s talent was recognized at an early age. He became an apprentice to the printer and publisher Jose Trinidad Pedroza at the age of 16. It was under his mentor’s tutelage that he learned the art of printmaking which focused on lithography as well as engraving on wood and metal. The shop where he worked, El Esfuerzo, located in the city of Aguascalientes also served as a meeting place where members of the community would discuss political and social issues of the day. This environment that Posada found himself in undoubtedly helped shape his political opinions and ultimately, his art.

Posada’s work drew controversy almost immediately. Pedroza assigned the young artist to engrave a satirical cartoon of a local politician and needless to say, the response from the authorities was not favorable. His caricature was so compelling and created such an uproar that both teacher and student had to flee town to escape the wrath of those offended. Posada’s career had begun.

Soon established in his new city of Leon, Posada’s work began to appear in magazines. Some of these early works were political in nature but not all. Posada’s other avenues of output included making artwork for purely commercial purposes, such as providing illustrations for matchbox covers, designing logos or engraving book cover designs. Posada married and began teaching lithography at a local school. Busy and fulfilled, his life went on uninterrupted until the year 1888, when a traumatic flood occurred in the city and Posada was again forced to relocate.

Calaveras Bailando

Mexico City became Posada’s new place of residence. He set up his own shop and worked for a variety of publishers on a free-lance basis. The artist forged an important liaison with Antonio Vanegas Arroyo, the leading publisher in the city. Together they created “hojas volantes”(flying leaves) which were one-page papers or broadsheets, distributed on the city streets for a penny a piece. These printed one-page documents covered a whole host of topics, ranging from moral stories to high-society gossip to songs that were illustrated (corridos).

Increasingly, Posada turned to the symbolism of the calavera (skeleton) to depict his illustrations that were filled with political satire. The dictatorship of Porfirio Diaz was in full swing at this time and social injustices were rampant. The decision to utilize skeletons in his illustrations had a two-fold effect. Graphically speaking, these images jump off the page, so to speak and cannot be ignored. As well, the people responded to the symbolism of the calavera as it was a deeply ingrained in their culture and subconscious. After all, the blood of their ancestors still ran in their veins, blood that was indigenous and not European. Many pre-Columbian civilizations decorated temples with skulls and had a deep fascination with death. While perhaps macabre on its surface, the symbolism of the calavera, which is in essence death, was a reminder that physical life is temporal while the spirit is eternal. Additionally, Posada’s intent was to show that in death everyone is equal, despite one’s economic status or position in life, death is the great equalizer that spares no one.

Hernan Cortes -His First Adventures

Another illustrator that worked in Arroyo’s shop, Manuel Manilla, also utilized the symbolism of the calavera in his engravings. Together with Posada’s prodigious contributions, the amount of calaveras (skeleton illustrations) this group produced was enormous and became very popular with the masses. Although many people were illiterate, they could still “read” what the illustrations were saying, a tribute to their effectiveness. As the often quoted saying goes “…a picture says a thousand words….”.

Posada was extremely prolific with the amount of work he produced in his life. Although the true number of engravings he made cannot be ascertained, some place the number as high as 20,000 works. Of these, it has been reported that an estimated 2,000 engravings have survived.

Undoubtedly, a technique that Posada invented helped him enormously both in production as well as expression. Well acquainted with the traditional printmaking technique of lithography, Posada also worked on wood blocks as well as zinc plates. Interested, however, in increasing his output, his experimentations led him to a new technique. Using acid-resistant ink, he would draw directly onto the metal plate and then place the plate in an acid-solution that quickly embedded the drawing. This plate, in turn, could be placed on the printing press at the same time as the type was placed, thereby saving an enormous amount of time and increasing production.

The Revolution

Posada’s new technique developed just prior to the Mexican Revolution of 1910. The output dramatically increased at Arroyo’s shop and the one-cent papers were being widely distributed on the streets of Mexico City. Posada’s illustrations have been credited with raising awareness enormously concerning the political injustices and abuses of the day. While he diligently worked from dawn to dusk, Posada was contributing greatly to the work of the revolutionaries who sought justice from the evils of Porfirio Diaz’s dictatorship.

As well, Posada played a pivotal role in the development of Diego Rivera’s work. Rivera was inspired by Posada’s attention to working-class concerns as well as his expressive artistic technique. While attending the San Carlos Academy of Art in Mexico City, Rivera would often stop by to visit Posada and watch him work. Years later, Rivera credited Posada as having been a great influence on his own artwork and direction. One of Rivera’s famous paintings, “Dream of a Sunday Afternoon in Alameda Park” pays a visual homage to Posada. Rivera included the famous skeleton image of the “Catrina” that Posada so often employed, a symbolic representation of a typical society-woman from turn-of-the- century Mexico.

Diego Rivera, Dream of a Sunday Afternoon

In addition to Rivera, Posada proved an inspiration to Jose Clemente Orozco, who as a boy would visit Posada in his workshop. In his autobiography, Orozco writes, “This was my awakening to the existence of the art of painting. I became one of the most faithful customers in Vanegas Arroyo’s retail shop . . . .” Posada’s influence was so great and he influenced so many that somehow it doesn’t seem right that the artist died in obscurity and poverty. He died quietly in the year 1913, alone and penniless and was buried in a common grave.

Some years later, a French artist by the name of Jean Charlot was collaborating on a mural with Diego Rivera in Mexico City. Charlot, walking the streets of the city, came upon Posada’s work which was still being used to illustrate the daily one-cent papers. Deeply intrigued and interested, Charlot began to feverishly collect Posada’s work. As well, he published an article about Posada that was widely read and admired. Charlot proved instrumental in bringing international awareness to the importance of Posada’s work and his place in history.

Today, Posada’s work is housed in various collections throughout the world. A museum dedicated to the artist is located in Posada’s hometown of Aguascalientes, Mexico. The Museo Jose Guadalupe Posada features prints along with the original metal plates that were used to create them. Although Posada the man is deceased, his work lives on, perhaps the greatest triumph over death there is.

I hope you’ve enjoyed this as much as I have. There is so much interesting Mexican history and culture, that I sometime have difficulty deciding what to post. Is there something in particular that you would enjoy reading about? Just drop a message or comment and I’ll be more than happy to oblige. Enjoy!

Resources: Mexonline .com

Cholula Pyramid

THE GREAT PYRAMID OF CHOLULA, Cholula, Puebla

Located on the central plateau of Mexico, hidden to the naked eye, sits the world’s largest ancient pyramid. The town where this wonder is located is Cholula, a small village just outside Puebla. Upon first glance, one sees only the charming colonial church of La Iglesia de los Remedios, built in the 16th century. Amazingly, however, this church sits atop the Great Pyramid of Tepanapa, oftentimes referred to as the Cholula Pyramid. Hidden by vegetation, the hill upon which the church was built, actually houses the great pyramid.

The history of the pyramid, coupled with the momentous events which followed, is full of drama and mystery. Approximately one hundred years before Christ, the pyramid’s construction begun. Cholula, by this time, was already one of Mexico’s largest cities, having been settled circa 1700 B.C. The pyramid’s construction along with affiliated temples, was carried out by various groups over hundreds of years. Its early period coincided with the great city of Teotihuacan’s development and power.

Inside Cholula Pyramid

An important ceremonial and political center of the pre-Columbian world, Cholula mirrored Teotihuacan’s glory days of power. As well, its first subsequent demise coincided with that of Teotihuacan. But unlike the great city to the northwest, whose people mysteriously disappeared, some residual peoples remained in Cholula, not abandoning the city entirely. Expansion of the pyramid continued with the arrival of the Olmec-Xicallancas, who further added to the pyramid’s scale.

The Toltec-Chichimecas occupied Cholula next, circa 1100 A.D. By that time the great pyramid was already largely submerged underneath tree and dirt. The Toltecs chose to focus their activity on building new temples which would surround the area of the great pyramid. The Toltecs also brought with them their intense devotion of Quetzalcoatl. Cholula subsequently became a mecca for pilgrims from all over Mexico, who flocked to the city to pay homage to the feathered serpent God.

Quetzalcoatl, already a long established deity of the Mesoamerican world, undoubtedly helped to inspire the pyramid’s initial construction. However, with the arrival of the Toltecs, the cult of Quetzalcoatl truly flourished. Additionally, under the rule of the Toltecs, Cholula became a major center for trade and commerce. Having established strong ties with all other cities in the region, Cholula maintained its independence for a time from the ever expanding Aztec Empire.

However, the Aztecs eventually took control of Cholula. When Cortes arrived in 1519, the pyramid, stood silent, hidden under grass and stone. The city’s population at this time equaled 100,000 inhabitants. Legend advises an ambush was planned by the Cholulans against the Spanish invaders under the direction of Montezuma. No longer swayed by Cortes whom he initially believed to be the reincarnation of Quetzalcoatl, the Aztec ruler made one last attempt to save his empire. Unfortunately, Cortes learned of the plan and what followed next was horrific: the slaughter of 6,000 Cholulan residents took place under the brutal command of Cortes.

Restored Stairway Cholula Pyramid

Temples were torn down and the ancient city of Cholula was destroyed. Cortes proclaimed that he would build a church in the area for each day of the year to match the number of temples destroyed. Drunk with power and with gold on his mind, Cortes failed to see the great pyramid.

Centuries elapsed before the pyramid was again discovered. In 1910, construction began on an insane asylum located at the base of the pyramid. Archaeologists once aware of the site began to survey and excavate. In the 1930’s, tunnels were made in order to better study the pyramid. These tunnels, which amount to an amazing five miles worth of passageways, zigzag in subterranean fashion, creating a labyrinth, not for the timid. These tunnels afford the visitor the opportunity of observing first-hand the various levels of construction. Delineated layers of shell and stone are visible. A total of four stages of construction occurred, over hundreds of years. Although lit with lamps, the atmosphere is definitely haunting and you most assuredly want to exit before nightfall.

In addition to the tunnels, outside there are altars, stairways and platforms to explore. One can also see a portion of the pyramid which was reconstructed by archaeologists. Not only does the pyramid of Cholula represent the largest single structure in Mexico, it also bears the distinction of having the largest base of any pyramid in the world, exceeding the bases of the great pyramids in Egypt. The total acreage the pyramid occupies is 25 acres with a height reaching an impressive 181 feet. Each side of the structure’s base is over 1300 feet in length.

When visiting the great pyramid of Cholula one is also afforded a magnificent view of the majestic snow-capped El Popocatepetl and Iztaccihuatl volcanoes. The pyramid of Cholula is truly a wondrous pre-Columbian gem. The site holds the potential of even greater discoveries and with only a small portion yet excavated, who knows what marvelous secrets the great pyramid has yet to reveal.

Mexican President Lazaro Cardenas

Mexico is a country rich in history and rich in natural resources with oil being the nation’s most precious commodity. President Lázaro Cárdenas (1934-1940) is the man responsible for securing Mexico’s vast oil profits for its citizens. His act of nationalizing the nation’s oil fields remains in place today.

The calendar date of March 18th, 1938, is remembered throughout the country as the day of “Expropiación Petrolera” (Oil Expropriation). Today, the topic of the country’s most valuable natural resource remains controversial. Currently, there is renewed discussion concerning the prospect of foreign companies drilling for oil in Mexico. Many are adamantly opposed to the suggestion, as it conflicts directly with Mexico’s Constitution.

In 1938, President Cárdenas expropriated all the nation’s oil production from foreign entities, namely the United Kingdom, the Netherlands and the United States. Up to this time, only international companies were drilling for oil in Mexico. The president was led to this bold move because the people of Mexico were being taken advantage of. Mexican workers were being paid only a portion of what their international counterparts were being paid and understandably, this situation created a great deal of labor unrest. Indeed, strikes were occurring regularly, disrupting production and causing widespread havoc.

In addition to these significant labor concerns, there was also an important underlying resentment growing towards foreign oil companies operating in Mexico. The populace was becoming increasingly aware that their country was not benefiting from its own resources. The foreign oil companies had been enjoying unprecedented profits from Mexico’s “black gold”. This basic discrepancy combined with the gross labor injustices being committed finally reached a crescendo of intolerable proportions. President Cárdenas met with representatives of the foreign companies operating in Mexico to try and resolve these issues.

These meetings, however, were not fruitful and the parties involved were unable to reach an agreement. On March 18th, 1938, President Cárdenas officially expropriated all oil assets from the international companies operating in Mexico. Drawing upon Article 27 of the Constitution of 1917, President Cárdenas declared Mexico’s oil belonged to the country and the people of Mexico. He made this announcement on national radio to the country’s citizens before he told members of his own cabinet. This incredible decision by President Cárdenas had profound consequences.

The people of Mexico were thrilled with the president’s bold course of action. Tens of thousands of the country’s citizens celebrated in the streets of Mexico to honor this historical event. Women donated their jewelry and silver to the government to help compensate the foreign companies whose assets had been seized. Naturally, the international companies affected by the sudden turn of events had a much different response than that of the nation’s populace. Outrage was followed by retaliation. An international boycott against Mexican oil was implemented. The intent was to punish Mexico and to bring ruin to Petróleos Mexicanos (PEMEX), the newly founded Mexican oil company instituted by President Lazaro Cárdenas. Both Mexico and PEMEX however survived the international boycott and today, PEMEX continues to be Mexico’s sole petroleum operator.

Have you enjoyed this article on Mexico’s history? I find it so fascinating. Leave a comment and let me know. Until next time, enjoy.

Resource: Mexonline.com  Posted By Aetna J B April 30,2010

Famous Women of Mexico

Sor Juana de la Cruz

Sor Juana Inés de la Cruz
One of Mexico’s most remarkable women was a nun who lived in the 17th century. Sor Juana Ines de la Cruz was an outstanding writer and poet whose works were extremely controversial for their time. Considered to be Mexico’s first feminist, Juana Ines de la Cruz was an extraordinary woman. Today her image graces the 200-peso note, a testimony to her achievements and place in history.

Although Juana demonstrated unusual abilities from a young age, her beginnings wouldn’t initially suggest great potential. Born in the year 1651 (with some reports advising 1648) to an unwed mother, Juana grew up in the shadow of the Popocatepetl volcano, to a poor but educated family during Mexico’s colonial period.

Juana was known to be an intellectually precocious child. It is widely documented that she knew how to read by three years of age. Her quest for learning was seemingly unquenchable. Legend advises that as a young girl, Juana sought out her Grandfather’s library and read its entire 3,000 volumes. Juana’s scholarly pursuits included the study of poetry and learning to speak Latin fluently. She reportedly mastered the language after receiving just 20 lessons. If being a child prodigy wasn’t enough, Juana was also known for her amazing beauty.

At a young age, Juana left home to live with her aunt in Mexico City. Her presence and abilities did not go unnoticed. She soon became a favorite at the Royal Court where she would impress visitors with her wit and scope of knowledge. Given her many gifts, both intellectual and physical, one might assume that Juana soon married. However, to the apparent surprise of many, Juana chose instead the monastic life. Some reports suggest a failed love affair may have led to Juana’s decision. However, Juana, apparently when asked about her choice, replied that life in a convent was her only option, as the environment provided the necessary atmosphere in which she could continue her studies.

Once safely ensconced in the walls of the convent, Juana fully immersed herself in the disciplines of theology, science, history, music and literature. In addition to her studies, Juana also corresponded with the leading poets and scholars of the day. Inspired, Juana began to write her own poetry. She proved to be no ordinary scribe, indeed her works proved to be both brilliant and highly controversial. Juana wrote several pieces that were revolutionary, especially for the time period in which she found herself in.

Portrait of Sor Juana Inés de la Cruz

Another hallmark work of Juana’s is a letter she wrote in response to a critique. This famous letter, ‘Respuesta a Sor Filotea’ (Response to Sister Filotea) was prompted by an angry letter she received where a supposed colleague criticized her secular leanings, admonished her to abandon her writings and commit herself solely to religion. In truth, the author was the Bishop of Puebla who disguised his true identity. This bishop was a supposed friend of Juana’s and thus the betrayal was double.

Bank Note with Sor Juana Inés de la Cruz

Today, Sor Juana continues to be studied and her prolific writings continue to inspire others as witnessed by the late Nobel Prize winner Octavio Paz’ book on Sor Juana’s life, ‘Sor Juana Or, the Traps of Faith’. Each year in Mexico a festival is held in her honor that is sponsored by the National Museum of Mexican Art. There is also a corresponding achievement award which celebrates women of Mexican descent who have made noteworthy accomplishments in the arts and cultural disciplines.

I hope that you have enjoyed this article about famous women of Mexico as much as I have. Let me know if there’s something in particular you would like me to publish.

Resource: Mexonline.com  Posted By Aetna J B April 26,2010

In Mexico, La Malinche is caught between two worlds

In the 16th century, one woman forever changed the course of Mexico’s history. She served Hernán Cortés as his translator and mistress and without her assistance, the Spanish conquistador would likely have been defeated. She was a woman who had many names, Malintzin in her youth and Doña Marina, after she had been christened. However, today the name she is frequently remembered by is La Malinche or simply, Malinche. Her name has become synonymous with hatred and scorn. Many look upon her as a traitor and hold her responsible for contributing directly to the conquest of her people.

Early accounts of her life indicate she was noble-born to a father who was the ruler of the Náhuatl-speaking village of Paynala. Generally, her date of birth is attributed to the year 1505 with the year of her death, 1529. However, there is some evidence that she may have lived longer. Malinche received an education, which was rare for a female in her society. Undoubtedly, it was her father’s status that afforded Malinche this privilege. Unfortunately, her father died when she was still a young girl and this tragic event forever changed her life.

La Malinche translating for Hernan Cortes

Hernan Cortes and La Malinche holding court

Hernan Cortes and La Malinche holding court

Before long, Malinche’s mother remarried and gave birth to a son. Sadly, Malinche was no longer welcome in the home and was either sold or given away to Maya slave-traders. Perhaps, the mother was forced to abandon her child. Some speculate that Malinche threatened the son’s future inheritance. Regardless, the chain of events that followed held greater consequences than anyone could imagine.

In 1519, Cortés and his men won a battle against a Mayan settlement in the area of present-day Tabasco. As a form of tribute, 20 Indian slaves were presented to the Spaniards. Malinche was amongst them. Her unique knowledge of Náhuatl, the Aztec language, as well as Mayan dialects, came to the attention of Cortés. Another translator was already a part of Cortés’ entourage, a Spanish priest by the name of Gerónimo de Aguilar.

This priest was imprisoned by the Mayans for several years and had learned their language. This proved an invaluable asset to Cortés. However, they soon encountered Indians who only spoke Náhuatl. The priest initially played a role in these translations. The representatives of Montezuma would speak Náhuatl with Malinche, who in turn would translate their words into Mayan for Aguilar. The priest would then translate the Mayan into Spanish, for the benefit of Cortés.

Before long, however, Malinche learned Spanish and became the direct interpreter for Cortés. Cortés utilized Malinche’s linguistic abilities to his advantage in his negotiations with the Aztec Empire. Indeed, Malinche arranged and mediated the introductions and meetings between Montezuma and Cortés. Montezuma carefully considered the Spanish conquistador the return of Quetzacoatl. However, this illusion evaporated when he realized Cortés’ true intent.

La Malinche serving as tranlator for Hernan Cortes

La Malinche serving as translator for Hernan Cortes

Malinche became more than just an interpreter for Cortés. Christened with her new name of Dona Marina, she became the Spaniard’s mistress and in 1522, bore him a son named Don Martín Cortés. Their child represents one of the first known Mestizos, an individual whose blood is a mixture of European and indigenous American. However, after the affair between Cortés and Malinche came to an end, she married another Spaniard named Juan Jaramillo. Their union produced a daughter, Maria Jaramillo.

La Malinche serving as translator for Hernan Cortes

Malinche’s ability to communicate and negotiate with various tribes allowed the Spanish to march through territories without being attacked. They picked up converts along the way. Many indigenous people joined Cortés and fought by his side. These tribes were motivated to join the Spanish, in hope of defeating their long-standing enemy, the Aztecs. This brutal and mighty empire had subjugated them for far too long.

Today, in Mexico a derogatory name to call someone is a “malinchista”, a person who turns their back on their own culture. Interestingly enough, some do not consider Malinche a traitor. Some view her as a heroine, helping spread the word of Christianity. For others, she was a woman in love, who had no choice but to follow her heart and protect her beloved Cortés. Malinche is viewed as well with honor by those who consider her one of the first “mothers” of the Mestizo race. Regardless of how one perceives Malinche, she forever changed the course of Mexico’s destiny.

This part of Mexico’s history about La Malinch as the translator and companion to Cortez is so interesting to me. Let me know what you think or would like to learn  about.  In the meantime, enjoy.

Resources: mexonline.com Published or posted April 23, 2010 by Aetna J B

Hernan Cortez - Conquerer and Explorer

Hernan Cortes was born into a family of “little wealth but much honor” in Castile, Spain in 1485. At the age of fourteen he attended the University of Salamanca but he left after just two years. In 1504 he sailed for Hispaniola (now called Santo Domingo) where he settled for six years, becoming a farmer and a notary to the town council. In 1509 he missed two ill-fated expeditions to South America due to contracting syphilis but in 1511 was sufficiently recovered to accompany Diego Velazquez on his conquest of Cuba. Velazquez was appointed Governor of Cuba and Cortes became a clerk to the Treasurer, eventually rising to be elected mayor (alcalde) of Santiago twice.

In 1518 Velazquez designated Cortes Captain General of a new expedition. Cortes took eleven ships, 608 men, and sixteen horses with him to Mexico. He landed at Tabasco in March 1519, quickly winning over the local population. He stayed here for some time, gathering intelligence and founding Vera Cruz. A local woman, Marina (also known in Mexico as Malinche), became his interpreter and later bore him a son, Martin. He also burned his ships, committing himself and his forces to their mission of conquering Mexico, there was no turning back.

Cortes quickly discovered that the Aztec empire was hated and feared by many of the other Indian tribes who had to pay tributes (including people to be sacrificed) to the Aztecs. By keeping conflict to a minimum, Cortez made over 200,000 allies, including the Tlaxcala, who became his closest allies after being defeated by the Spaniards. Cortes finally reached Tenochtitlan, capital of the Aztec empire on 8th November 1519 where Emperor Moctezuma II received him with great honour, believing him to be the reincarnation of the Aztec god Quetzalcoatl. Cortes soon took Moctezuma captive.

Hernan Cortez

At this time a Spanish army, led by Panfilo Narvaez, landed on the Mexican coast, with orders from Velazquez to capture and arrest Cortes. Leaving Captain Pedro de Alvarado in charge at Tenochtitlan, Cortes engaged Narvaez, defeating him and enlisting many of Narvaez’s soldiers to his side. On returning to Tenochtitlan however he found that the Aztecs had revolted after Alvarado had massacred several of their chiefs. The Spaniards had to retreat. Cortes overcame a huge Aztec army at Otumba on July 7th 1520 and reached Tlaxcala where he rebuilt and reorganised his forces. They marched again on Tenochtitlan, laying siege to the city. It finally fell on 13th August 1521 – and with it the Aztec Empire. Cortes razed Tenochtitlan, and built Mexico City in its place. In 1522 Cortes was appointed Governor and Captain General of New Spain.

Hernan Cortez

Velazquez, jealous of Cortes’ success, embarked on a smear campaign back in Spain, which Cortes tried to refute by sending a series of long letters to King Charles V. In 1524 Cortes went on a disastrous expedition to Honduras, damaging his health and reputation. The officials he left in charge confiscated his property in Mexico. Their administration was cruel, and this caused consternation in Spain. Luis Ponce de Leon was sent to Mexico to discover what was happening but he died almost immediately. Cortes was accused in some quarters of poisoning him. In 1528 Cortes returned to Spain, with gifts of treasure, to plead his case with the king. Charles V received him and made him Marques del Valle.

He returned to Mexico in 1530 and spent the next ten years there. In 1540 a viceroy was appointed and Cortes returned to Spain. He accompanied Charles V on a final expedition to Algiers, which ended in failure. He died in Seville on 2nd December 1547, and his remains were transported to Mexico City in 1629.

Resource information:Mexonline.com

Benito Juarez

SUMMARY: Benito Juarez is considered one of Mexico’s greatest and most beloved leaders. During his political career he helped to institute a series of liberal reforms that were embodied into the new constitution of 1857. During the French occupation of Mexico, Juarez refused to accept the rule of the Monarchy or any other foreign nation, and helped to establish Mexico as a constitutional democracy. He also promoted equal rights for the Indian population, better access to health care and education, lessening the political and financial power of the Roman Catholic church, and championed the raising of the living standards for the rural poor.

Benito Juarez was born March 21st 1806, the child of Zapoteco Indians. After they died when he was three, he went to live with his uncle, but when he was 12 he joined his sister in Oaxaca. He began studying for the priesthood, but in 1829 changed to studying for a law degree, which he received in 1831. That year he also began his political career, with a seat on the municipal council. In 1841 he became a judge, and the governor of Oaxaca.

In 1853 the conservatives took power in Mexico and many liberals were exiled, including Juarez, who spent his time of exile in New Orleans. In 1855 the liberals won the election, and Benito Juarez returned from his exile as the Minister of Justice. In 1857 he was elevated to preside over the supreme court, in effect making him the Vice President. In 1858 the conservatives rebelled, and again Juarez had to leave Mexico City, this time fleeing to Veracruz, where he created a government in exile.

In January 1861 the conservatives lost power, and Benito Juarez became the President of Mexico. As the treasury was practically empty Juarez made the decision to suspend payment on all foreign debts for a two year period. After Mexican congress rejected an agreement Juarez had made with the British Prime Minister to protect the interests of European countries Spanish, British and French troops landed in Vera Cruz. Spain and Britain were there to protect their financial interests, and left in April, after it became clear that France had conquest in mind. The French troops fought for two years, and although suffering  a serious defeat on the 5th of May 1862,eventually captured Mexico City in June 1863, and placed Archduke Maximilian of Austria on the Mexican throne.

Benito Juarez and the government of Mexico were forced to retreat right back to Ciudad Juarez, on the border with the USA. After four years with growing pressure from America, continuing resistance from Mexicans and criticism from the French govenrment and people, finally the Napoleonic forces withdrew. Maximilian himself was captured and executed on 19th June 1867.

Benito Juarez returned to Mexico city, and the presidency even after suffering a stroke in October 1870, and the loss of his wife in 1871. He won the presidential election in 1871, but died on 18th July 1872, of a heart attack.

Location of Victory Battle

The holiday of Cinco De Mayo, The 5th Of May, commemorates the victory of the Mexican militia over the French army at The Battle Of Puebla in 1862. It is primarily a regional holiday celebrated in the Mexican state capital city of Puebla and throughout the state of Puebla, with some limited recognition in other parts of Mexico, and especially in U.S. cities with a significant Mexican population. It is not, as many people think, Mexico’s Independence Day, which is actually September 16.

Setting The Stage
The battle at Puebla in 1862 happened at a violent and chaotic time in Mexico’s history. Mexico had finally gained independence from Spain in 1821 after a difficult and bloody struggle, and a number of internal political takeovers and wars, including the Mexican-American War (1846-1848) and the Mexican Civil War of 1858, had ruined the national economy.

Archduke Ferdinand Maximilian

During this period of struggle Mexico had accumulated heavy debts to several nations, including Spain, England and France, who were demanding repayment. Similar debt to the U.S. was previously settled after the Mexican-American War. France was eager to expand its empire at that time, and used the debt issue to move forward with goals of establishing its own leadership in Mexico. Realizing France’s intent of empire expansion, Spain and England withdrew their support. When Mexico finally stopped making any loan payments, France took action on its own to install Napoleon III’s relative, Archduke Maximilian of Austria, as ruler of Mexico.

France invaded at the gulf coast of Mexico along the state of Veracruz (see map) and began to march toward Mexico City, a distance today of less than 600 miles. Although American President Abraham Lincoln was sympathetic to Mexico’s cause, and for which he is honored in Mexico, the U.S. was involved in its own Civil War at the time and was unable to provide any direct assistance.

Gen. Zaragoza

Marching on toward Mexico City, the French army encountered strong resistance near Puebla at the Mexican forts of Loreto and Guadalupe. Lead by Mexican General Ignacio Zaragoza Seguin, a smaller, poorly armed militia estimated at 4,500 men were able to stop and defeat a well outfitted French army of 6,500 soldiers, which stopped the invasion of the country. The victory was a glorious moment for Mexican patriots, which at the time helped to develop a needed sense of national unity, and is the cause for the historical date’s celebration.

Unfortunately, the victory was short lived. Upon hearing the bad news, Napoleon III had found an excuse to send more troops overseas to try and invade Mexico again, even against the wishes of the French populace. 30,000 more troops and a full year later, the French were eventually able to depose the Mexican army, take over Mexico City and install Maximilian as the ruler of Mexico.

Gen Maximilliano's Shirt

Maximilian’s rule of Mexico was also short lived, from 1864 to 1867. With the American Civil War now over, the U.S. began to provide more political and military assistance to Mexico to expel the French, after which Maximilian was executed by the Mexicans – his bullet riddled shirt is kept at the museum at Chapultepec Castle in Mexico City. So despite the eventual French invasion of Mexico City, Cinco de Mayo honors the bravery and victory of General Zaragoza’s smaller, outnumbered militia at the Battle of Puebla in 1862.

Today’s Celebration
For the most part, the holiday of Cinco de Mayo is more of a regional holiday in Mexico, celebrated most vigorously in the state of Puebla. There is some limited recognition of the holiday throughout the country with different levels of enthusiasm, but it’s nothing like that found in Puebla.

Cinco De Mayo Festival

Celebrating Cinco de Mayo has become increasingly popular along the U.S.-Mexico border and in parts of the U.S. that have a high population of people with a Mexican heritage. In these areas the holiday is a celebration of Mexican culture, of food, music, beverage and customs unique to Mexico.

Commercial interests in the United States and Mexico have also had a hand in promoting the holiday, with products and services focused on Mexican food, beverages and festivities, with music playing a more visible role as well. Several cities throughout the U.S. hold parades and concerts during the week following up to May 5th, so that Cinco de Mayo has become a bigger holiday north of the border than it is to the south, and being adopted into the holiday calendar of more and more people every year.

[Sources: Encyclopedia Encarta, Encyclopedia Britanica, Prescott's Mexico:1900, HistoryChannel.com, other sources. minor edits April 25, 2007]

Reminiscences of Mexico's Huichol People

I’m posting this interesting story written originally by Ronald A Barnett. As I research Mexico’s history and culture, the “Huichol” people have become of special interest to me.

Some years ago, my parents and I lived at Ana Capri between Tuxcueca and Mismaloya on the south shore of Lake Chapala. Ana Capri was built as a motel but never saw any business because of its difficult location, so we rented it from the owners.

There I met Salvador Cardenas, the gardener and caretaker, and his family. Salvador was not a professional curandero, but he knew a great deal about herbs and herbal remedies. We gathered some forty herbs in the mountains just behind Ana Capri. I still have the dried specimens. This sparked my interest in traditional or alternative medicine and, in 1996, I attended the Fiesta de las Plantas Medicinales held that year in San Martin de los Piramides not far from the famous archaeological site of Teotihuacan with its pyramids of the Sun and the Moon.

We arrived in the early morning (September, Friday 13!) and a large group of participants in the Fiesta went to the archaeological site. At first, we were refused admittance. Our leaders finally convinced the guards we were not ordinary tourists and they let us in. In Mesoamerican religion, Teotihuacan is considered the most powerful sacred place in Mexico and so a visit there was deemed essential before the start of the Fiesta.

As we proceeded we picked up tourists on the way and I found myself delivering an impromptu lecture on the site. My friend Katuza, the temascalero from Ajijic, translated for the Spanish-speaking visitors.

We began pitching our tents in an open field near the village, but it rained so hard we had to give up. The Huichols in our party thought it was a great joke. Hundreds of us ended up sleeping on the cement floor of a large warehouse. Sleeping bags, blankets, bodies everywhere, but somehow there was order and meaning in the midst of apparent confusion.

The rain eased off the next day and we were able to pitch our tents. I shared a large pup tent with the Huichol marákame (shaman) Daniel, who was also a guest of honour at the Fiesta, his twelve year old daughter, Rosita, and Katuza. When I went to bed, the shaman was fast asleep, sitting bolt upright. Perhaps he was in some transcendental state or other. Anyway he remained that way until morning.

The demonstrations and curaciones (free traditional medical treatments) were scheduled to be held in a large auditorium, but the Huichols and the various curanderos set up shop wherever they found potential patients. The Huichol shamans attracted much attention.

Marákame Daniel began business almost immediately as people passed by our tent and saw him in all his colourful finery. One well-dressed sophisticated lady asked me if I thought the shamans could cure her sore leg by magic. The doctors had given up on her. I was not a PR man for the Huichol, but I had seen and experienced some strange things in Mexico and was not prepared to gainsay the shamans. I told her the only way to find out was to try the treatment. The shamans went through a modified form of the curing ceremony with the magic prayer arrows. I never found out what happened to the woman.

The idea of curing through “magical” means is not as preposterous as it sounds. The interactive relationship between mind and body in the treatment of certain illnesses is well established. Psychosomatic illness is real and can lead to serious physical illnesses.

In a traditional society like the Huichol, disease means the separation of the mind or “spirit” from body or physical aspect resulting in lack of ease (dis-ease). The purpose of the shaman is to restore equilibrium to the patient by easing his or her mind and bringing it back into synchronization with the body or physical being. When the shaman wafts his sacred arrows over the patient, he is helping the patient restore the balance between mind and body. If the patient believes sincerely enough in the procedure, it can produce a positive attitude which aids in the healing process. Of course not all illnesses can be dealt with in this way. But then modern medical science still cannot cure many serious illnesses even with the best of equipment and technique. When it comes to traditional or alternative medicine and unorthodox forms of treatment in Mexico, I try to keep an open mind.

On the final day of the Fiesta, we were scheduled to hold the closing ceremony in the main tianguis (street market) square of the town. It is against the law to hold public events inside the site of Teotihuacan without special government permission, and the organizers did not have government permit or authorization from local officials to hold the final event inside the archaeological zone. However, it was decided that, since Teotihuacan was a religious shrine for all of Mesoamerica, it was only proper that the final ceremony be held there.

We assembled at the tianguis, and several hundred of us marched through town towards Teotihuacan led by the Aztec dancers, dancing all the way, ostrich plume headdresses waving, shell anklets jangling, all to the accompaniment of the haunting air and incessant beat of the ancient flute and tambour.

We reached the gates to the entrance and were confronted by the guards on duty. But as we approached the guards gave way, opened the gates, and let us pass without a word. There was a feeling of great spiritual power in the air that day.

The closing ceremony was held in one of the ancient dance plazas with the pyramid of the Sun in the background. The chief guest of honour, the marákame Daniel, and Katuza, stood in the concentric circle of dancers. Katuza wore the long blue shirt of the Oglala Sioux Sun Dancers, while Daniel wore a plain white Huichol style outfit. As part of the general 500th anniversary celebration of native survival in the Americas, we had many native participants in attendance, from Eskimos to South American Indians.

Rituals were performed in the center of the circle, and then the dancing began. I stood on the sidelines until I was pulled into the circle by some of my friends. I didn’t know the dance steps but the throbbing beat of the huehuetl, the ceremonial Aztec drum, produced a hypnotic effect and before I knew it I was dancing with the rest. After a while, we were unconscious of the time or space. Afterwards, we were told we had been dancing in the blazing hot noonday sun for many hours.

The dancing stopped and we saw that hundreds of spectators had gathered on the stone steps overlooking the dance square. Whether they were part of the Fiesta or simply tourists who had wandered on to the scene, I do not know, but long lines formed aligned to the four directions as many people came forward to receive a blessing of copal incense and a bunch of ceremonial sage from the shaman-priests.

Then we formed a long line led by the Aztec dancers as we headed for the exit gates. The marákame Daniel disappeared for a few moments then reappeared from behind a mound. When asked where he had been he said he had been to the moon. It is believed that shamans can leave the body at will and travel to the spirit world. Anyway, Daniel’s story was accepted at face value as he rejoined the procession and we left the grounds.

Different religions have different accounts to explain why we are here and what life is all about.

The Huichol marákame or shaman combines the roles of priest, healer, and tradition-bearer. Shamans often come from a long line of family shamans and learn the chants, rituals, and the religious and philosophical traditions from the elders. As a priest and healer, the shaman practices the art of healing mainly through magical means, although the Huichols have knowledge of herbs and herbal remedies. As a guardian of the “costumbres” (customs or traditions), the shaman presides over the many rituals and ceremonies in which he chants or sings the long narrative songs containing the traditional history and religious concepts of the Huichol people. Traditionally, the full-fledged shaman must have completed at least five consecutive pilgrimages to Wirikuta in search of the Dios Hikuri.

From what I have observed during my years in Mexico, I regard shamanism as simply another form of religion. The Huichol have preserved more of their pre-Hispanic world outlook than most other indigenous peoples in the Americas, and some of their beliefs and practices may seem odd to outsiders but are no more strange than many of the ideas of the missionaries who try to convert them

As I mentioned earlier, I have a special interest in the Huichol people as they are a big part of Mexico’s history and culture.

By Ronald A Barnett. Republished by AetnaJo 2010