Like Saint Augustine in the 5th century we all know what time is until somebody asks us to define it exactly.

Likewise, the idea of literature seems clear enough until we begin to ask people what they regard as literature. Is it Shakespeare, the Bible, the morning newspaper, or what?

In a complex society such as ours people will have many different views about what constitutes literature. In a pre-literate or tribal society however there is a general consensus on what constitutes the A literature@ of that society even if it is handed down over the generations by the spoken word only.

In ancient Mexico, the spoken word or the oral tradition was greatly reinforced by the use of painted books in which native history and religion were preserved and handed down through successive generations.

The Maya had the most advanced system of writing in the Americas at the time Europeans began to arrive, but the Mixtec and Aztec peoples also had a very efficient system of written communication through a combination of pictorial and phonetic elements which made up the Mixtec-Aztec writing system.

In a very real sense, these were highly literate societies, although the methods and themes of their literature may seem to us exotic or difficult to understand. It seems strange therefore (to me at least) why there should be any serious doubt that the Maya and the Aztecs had an extensive literature in both oral and written form until it was all but brought to an end by the Spaniards.

Here we shall be concerned with written texts in Nahuatl, the language spoken by the Aztecs at the time of the Spanish Conquest in 1521.

The Conquest of Mexico was the crucial turning point in the history of Nahuatl or Aztec literature.

Before the Conquest, a strong oral tradition backed up by the painted codices guaranteed the composition and transmission of what we shall assume for the moment was Aztec “literature.”

Shortly after the Conquest, Spanish missionaries taught the survivors or their sons Spanish and Latin. They also quickly learned to write their own native Nahuatl in Roman transcription or alphabetic letters.

It is at this point that Nahuatl literature enters the world literary stage as fixed texts. However, this is also where the controversy starts between those who believe that the Nahuatl texts are a genuine reflection of pre-Hispanic oral and “written” tradition and those who doubt that we have the genuine native tradition because so much of it has been filtered down through the Spanish missionaries and colonial rulers.

Much of the discussion pro and con focuses on three important sources of Nahuatl poetry: theCantares Mexicanos (Mexico City), the Romances de los señores de Nueva España (University of Texas), and a collection in Paris (samples only).

The Cantares Mexicanos is a collection of poems in Classical Nahuatl which was transcribed into an alphabetic form around A.D. 1550, some 30 years after the Spanish Conquest.

Among these poems are compositions of a heroic type found in other epic poems and sagas elsewhere. Some poems therefore may be described as Cuauhcuicatl (“Songs of the Eagle or “The Eagles”), Yaocuicatl (“Songs of Warriors”), and Teuccuicatl (“Songs of Princes or Chieftains”).

Other categories included Xochicuicatl (“Songs of Flowers” or “Flowery Songs”), Icnocuicatl (“Songs of Desolation or Adversity”), Matlazincayotl (“Songs of the affairs of Matlazinco”), Tlaxcaltecayotl (“Songs about Tlaxcala”), Huehuecuicatl (“Songs of the Old Men”), and a poem about Xopancuicatl.

Many poems of a heroic or epic quality refer to warriors or the warrior cult. Garibay provides these Nahuatl poems with general descriptive titles, such as Canto de guerra mística (“Song of the Mystical War”), Recuerdo de los héroes (“Memory of the Heroes”), Muerte en guerra, feliz para al guerrero (“Death in War, Happiness for the Warrior”), Los tres reyes y la sociedad guerrera (“The Three Kings and the Warrior Society”), Poema de rememoración de héroes (“Poem in Remembrance of the Heroes”), etc, etc. Other warrior songs are: La batalla y el dios (“The Battle and the God”), Ciudades vencidas (“Conquered Cities”), and En memoria de heroes (“In Memory of the Heroes”).

Father A. Garibay was one of the first scholars to attempt to translate and interpret these difficult Nahuatl texts, which admittedly are full of elaborate metaphors and obscure allusions. Again we have to blame our present lack of knowledge on the early Spanish Conquistadores and missionaries who destroyed the painted books and other sources of information we needed to interpret these works correctly.

But we have no choice but to work with what we have. The work of Garibay was followed up by his student M. Leon-Portilla at the National University of Mexico in Mexico City.

According to the standard Garibay/Leon-Portilla interpretation the recurring phrase in xochitl in cuicatl(“the flower, the song”) in Nahuatl poetry not only represents the concept of poetry in Classical Aztec society but reflects the genuine pre-Conquest native tradition. It also purports to show that there was a completely different side to the Aztec character than their apparent limitless bloodthirsty appetite for human hearts.

However, several scholars have recently sharply challenged the Garibay/Leon-Portilla interpretation of Aztec culture in general and Nahuatl literature in particular. In this view, Garibay and Leon-Portilla were simply creating a literature for the Aztecs which, allegedly, existed only in the minds of the translator-historians. One critic goes so far as to claim that Garibay in fact “created” a literature for Aztec civilization for personal and political reasons. Hell hath no fury like that of an academic with a point to make and a reputation to uphold.

The current debate over the question of the pre-Hispanic origin and authorship of these poems and their value as a genuine expression of native tradition may be briefly illustrated from the following excerpts from the Cantares Mexicanos.

In one series of short warrior poems, we find a strange mixture of themes: flowers and song intermingled with references to death on the battlefield. The battle itself is described as “flowery” (tlachinoxochitl).

King Ahuizotl (1486-1502) is said to reign by means of arrows and flowery shields (chimalxochitl). The composer or singer of this song-poem says he is intoxicated with the flowers of war (yaoxochitl) and calls upon the God and Giver of Life (Teotl e Aya ipalnemoani) to carry the city on his shoulders and preserve Anahuac (the Valley of Mexico) in his hands.

In Garibay’s edition, the word “Dios,” which precedes the Nahuatl word “Teotl” in the original text, is omitted and placed in the right-hand margin thus: ( ) Teotl é Aya ipalnemoani (Om. Dios).

There are many such Christian references throughout the poems in the Cantares Mexicanos, such as “obispo” (“bishop”), Santa Maria, Espiritu Santo etc. This is only one such example. In his later translations, Leon-Portilla leaves these out of the text altogether.

Consequently both scholars have been severely criticized on the grounds that they were deliberately altering the original texts to suppress whatever did not support their concept of Aztec society in general and Nahuatl literature in particular.

The explanation for the Christian references in the Nahuatl poems seems rather obvious (to me at least). In fact, Garibay thought he had explained them in his early edition of the Cantares Mexicanos.He quotes directly from the proceedings of the First Catholic Council in Mexico in the 16th century. In that report, church officials noted that the Indians were prone to backslide into their old pagan ways, especially in these song-poems. Therefore the officials gave instructions that priests or persons well-versed in Nahuatl were to examine the poems for any sign of paganism (cosas profanes) and make sure that they were conducive to the conversion of the natives. Garibay gives a number of examples of the way in which the Spanish missionaries appear to have altered the text in very subtle ways to give [alleged] pre-Hispanic Nahuatl poems the appearance of Christian compositions. For example:

Iztac huexotl Aya iztac tolin in
ye imanican Mexico nican Huiya
Timatlalaztatotl tipatlanihuiz
tehuan titeotl ( ) Ohuaya (Om. Spu. So.)
(Ref)

From the white willows, the white reeds
Mexico is the abode,
You, you the blue heron, you have come down flying
You are the god*
(*my translation after Garibay)

Garibay here says that the poet is speaking of the Aztec war god Huitzilopochtli, the blue heron refers to the semi-historical, semi-legendary Aztlan, original home of the Aztecs, and blue is the ritual color of the god. But here, too, we can see the not-so-subtle guiding hand of the priest, for the proof reader adds “Tú, dios Espiritu Santo” (see above bracketed quotation). The result, as Garibay remarks, is grotesque.

Many more examples of such Christian interpolations could be given here. One would have thought this would have settled the matter once and for all, but some critics think otherwise.

For example, J. Bierhorst interprets all of the poems of the Cantares as “Ghost Songs” and completely rejects the Garibay/Leon-Portilla interpretation of “in xochitl in cuicatl” as referring to poetry. Instead, Bierhorst believes that these are songs intended to summon the spirits of dead warriors to return to earth to help their descendants trodden under by the Spaniards.

In this view, the oft-mentioned”flowers” (xochitl) in the poems refer to persons summoned from the Other World. These ghosts descend from heaven fully armed and ready to fight. In return for their services, the warrior ghosts demand payment in human sacrifice or if the war is already in progress, they will automatically arrive as payment.

Bierhorst and others offer so many more criticisms of the Garibay/Leon-Portilla method of translation and interpretation that one wonders why the poems were preserved in the first place if they were so controversial from the beginning. Again the answer seems fairly obvious.

Some years ago I was doing some private research on the Huichol Indians of Jalisco and Nayarit. I visited the Huichol museum at the twin-towered Cathedral in Zapopan to the north of Guadalajara, where I met a Father Buenventura who showed me an instructional manual for priests dealing with the Huichol Indians.

In it was a diagram of the ririki or native temple or god-house showing how the various items used in the Huichol ceremony could be gradually, almost imperceptibly, converted into a Catholic mass.

This was simply a continuation of the process of conversion of natives to Christianity beginning in the 16th century. The universal aim of the Spanish missionary- priests was to wipe out all trace of native religion, which they regarded as idolatry and the work of the devil.

However, they were clever enough not to destroy all the symbols of the ancient “pagan” world; rather they used every means at their disposal to convert the Indians. As the so-called “Christian Humanist,” A. Garibay himself noted in his edition of the Cantares Mexicanos, the Christian interpolations in the poems were intended to do precisely that.

One of the great ironies of events in Mexican history is that, in some cases at least, the very opposite has happened. The conquered have conquered the conquerors and certain aspects of religion in Mexico are simply a thin veneer of Christianity superimposed over pre-Conquest native religion. The old gods of Mexico are not yet dead.

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Musicologists and folklorists have argued for years over the origin of the word – Mariachi. The explanation that appears most frequently – especially on record jackets and in travel brochures – is that it is a variation of the French wordmariage, meaning wedding or marriage, and comes from the time in the nineteenth century when Maximillian, a Frenchman, was Emperor of Mexico.

According to this myth the Mariachi was named by the French after the celebration with which it was most commonly associated. But this explanation, always regarded as highly doubtful by linguists, was totally discredited recently when a use of the word was found that predated the time when the French arrived in Mexico.

Currently, however, the best scholarly opinion is that the word mariachi has native roots. One theory is that it comes from the name of the wood used to make the platform on which the performers danced to the music of the village musicians. But whatever its true source – and the truth may never be discovered with absolute certainty – the word today has one meaning that is crystal clear: Mariachi means one of the most exciting and enchanting musical ensembles found anywhere in the world.

The Beginning of the Mariachi We Know Today

Although the origins of Mariachi music go back hundreds of years, in the form we know it the Mariachi began in the nineteenth century in the Mexican state of Jalisco - according to popular legend, in the town of Cocula. The Mariachi was the distinctive version of the Spanish theatrical orchestra of violins, harp and guitars which developed in and around Jalisco. In other areas such as Veracruz and the Huasteca region in the northeast, the ensemble evolved differently. By the end of the nineteenth century, in Cocula the vihuela, two violins, and the guitarró n (which had replaced the harp) were the instruments of the Mariachi.

The principal music played by these early Mariachis was the SON, the popular music of the day. A mixture of folk traditions from Spain, Mexico, and Africa, the son was found in many regions of the country. The son from Jalisco is called the son Jalisciense. La Negra is the best-known example.

Zones from other regions include the son Jarocho or Veracruzano, from the region around the Gulf port of Veracruz; and the son Huasteco, from northeastern Mexico. The most famous example of the son Jarocho is La Bamba. A typical son Huasteco, also known as the Huapango, is La Malagueña. It is interesting to note that there are some zones, such as El Gusto, which are common in all three regions and clearly date back to a common ancestor.

By: Jorge Tamayo Re-published or Posted on July 30, 2011 by AetnaJo B.

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The Religious Virgins and Saints of Mexico: las Virgenes y Santos de Mexico

Strolling through street markets, browsing the tourist stalls, visitors to all parts of Mexico see mountains of goods featuring the image of the Virgin of Guadalupe. As tourists observe the impossibly colorful image repeated endlessly on caps, T-shirts, key chains, sequined appliqués, mud flaps, decals, bibs, murals, bumper stickers, tiles, candles, religious art, mirrors and tattoos they judge the situation to be clever marketing providing a popular talisman for the poor and uneducated.

While most understand the vulgarizing of a popular local icon to promote sales, they quickly dismiss La Virgen as an amusing bit of folklore. They view the image of the Virgin decorated with bunting and artificial flowers, hanging in homes, stores, churches and even modern factories at the end of each production line as a quaint bit of foreign custom or superstition.

By brushing aside the Virgin and all she represents as tacky commercialism, guests to Mexico are ignoring an important opportunity to begin to understand what is in the hearts, minds and souls of the Mexican people.

THE VIRGIN IS A COMMON DENOMINATOR

When anthropologists search for a common bond, for the thing that gives Mexicans their national identity, they have to reject the usual concepts. Language did not unite Mexico, as 117 dialects were deciphered by 1575. Ethnic background didn’t provide a bond, not in a country of people who have evolved from raping Spanish fathers, enslaved Indian mothers, with a goodly number of Austrians, French, Germans, Irish, Black, and Chinese added during the ensuing centuries. The geography of this land ranges from tropical seacoasts to grand mountains, huge deserts and mountain mesas. Certainly neither class structure and education, nor occupations nor politics serve to bring the people together as a whole. Even the vast majority of the country served by the Catholic Church find that alone does not make them brothers.

Truly, the Virgin of Guadalupe is the rubber band that binds this disparate nation into a whole. She is the common denominator of this land, it is she giving Mexicans a sense of Nationalism, and Patriotism. Their brotherhood comes from the strength of intense faith rooted in indigenous attributes, images, symbols, magic and myth. The focus of this intense faith revolves around Our Lady, La Virgen Maria de Guadalupe, the mother of God who appeared in Mexico in 1531.

SHE IS THE CRADLE OF MEXICANISM

Beginning to understand the intense relationship between Mexicans and La Virgen is to begin to understand the people of this great and confusing nation of contrasts

In ten years of oppression by the Spaniards, the Indians had been worn down, their spirit was broken, but relatively few had been baptized as Christians. Even those who had been converted to Catholicism missed the closeness of worshipping their own gods. They were separated from the Gods that belonged to them, that looked like them. They felt orphaned by their gods, and then adopted into a religion where they didn’t feel they belonged. When the Virgin Mary of Guadalupe appeared, brown skinned, and speaking a local language, they again had an object of worship that was their very own. She was a shield of the weak, help of the oppressed, the mother of orphans.

The appearance of Guadalupe on Tepeyac, the site of the destroyed Aztec temple of Tonantzin, the Mother Earth Goddess restored the dignity and the spirit of the people. Her arrival is said to mark the birth of a new land and a new people, neither European nor prehispanic, but both, the first product of the New World. Even her physical appearance announced the newness of this world, for her face looked neither like the Spanish nor the Indian. Her lovely features are the pleasant mixture of both – she is a Mestizo, the first Mexican.

Chicana writer Gloria Anzaldua writes, “She is like my race – a synthesis of the old world and the new, of the religion and culture of the two races in our psyche, the conquerors and the conquered.”

THE VIRGIN IS NOT JUST ABOUT THE CHURCH – SHE IS MEXICO

Curiously, the power of belief in the Virgin of Guadalupe has little to do with membership or attendance in the church. In fact, it is said that while 89 of 100 Mexicans are Catholic, it is certain that 100 of 100 Mexicans are Guadalupanas, devotees to the Virgin.

Octavio Paz, Mexican thinker, writer and Nobel prize recipient said, “When Mexicans no longer believe in anything, they will still hold fast to their belief in two things: the National Lottery and the Virgin of Guadalupe. In this I think they will do well. For both have been known to work, even for those of us who believe in nothing.”

The Virgin IS Mexico – fiesta and fervor, food and devoted song, dance and penance. She is the image, the icon that gave birth to a nation and that is the cornerstone of national pride and strength, a symbol of the homeland.

THE VIRGIN IS A SYMBOL OF THE HOMELAND, PATRIOTISM, NATIONALISM

It has been said that from the moment of her appearance, Guadalupe was a time bomb moving steadily through three centuries to explode into a call for freedom from the oppression of Spain. It was the image of Guadalupe in 1810 that graced the banners of Padre Miguel Hidalgo y Costilla, father of Mexican Independence, as he led the country through 10 years of war for liberty.

The first president of the Republic, Felix Fernandez changed his name to the very symbolic Guadalupe Victoria.

In 1859 when the government of the first Indian president, Benito Juarez divided church and state, the only remaining religious holiday in the country was December 12, the Day of the Virgin of Guadalupe. The fierce Battle of 5th of May against the French was waged and won at the Hill of Guadalupe, site of the Virgin’s Sanctuary.

Is it any wonder, then, that while in other countries, the First Lady of the land is the wife of the President or Ruler, the Virgin of Guadalupe is the First Lady of Mexico, Mother of all Mexicans and Queen of the Americas.

GUADALUPE, QUEEN OF THE AMERICAS

Guadalupe followed the Mexicans north as they settled the northern reaches of their country, areas that later became the United States. She remained at their side after the Mexican American War, when they were strangers in a strange land..

Today, 150 years later, she continues to accompany Mexicans as they cross the border. She remains the most powerful Chicana icon for Mexicans on the other side. Generations after the immigration of a family to the U.S., grandchildren, great-grandchildren treasure the presence of the Virgin, and recognize her as Mother of all Mexicans.

Even on the U.S. side, Guadalupe’s values and strengths continue to inspire her children toward change, fulfillment and honor. In the 1970’s United Farm Workers’ head Cesar Chavez carried the banner of Guadalupe in his relentless struggle for economic justice for migratory workers.

Chavez and the UFW co-founder Dolores Huerta worked under the slogan “ Si se puede” and the patronage of the Virgin, “She is a symbol of faith, hope and leadership,” says Huerta.

“She has been incorporated into everything we do,” Huerta added. “If she’s not there, you notice her absence right away.” Today Mexican American women in Mexico and the United states are seeing Our Lady of Guadalupe in a new light, using her to demand and expect more from themselves, their jobs, their homes and their communities. Guadalupe is certainly up for this new role, as one woman said, “The virgin transcends all things. She is strength, and she is beauty, and she is wisdom and compassion.”

She is the symbol of ethnic identity, uniting people of different races, religions and languages. She manifests, symbolizes and activates the power of the people. She is a cultural symbol of justice, unconditional love, union, belonging, family, home.

GUADALUPE, MOTHER OF MEXICANS

Guadalupe is Mother to ALL Mexicans, not just the struggling, or the poor or the immigrant. She is there for the wealthy as well as the desperate. She is equally important to the new President of the land as the campesino picking chiles. The junior league and the aged widows in striped rebozoscome together on their knees. The gang members and the attorneys find the Virgin their common ground.

Her devotees cross all lines of economics, social standing, and education. Her image hangs around necks on fine gold chains and on rawhide with the same tenderness and depth of emotion and devotion. Her face adorns the silver key chains of high performance vehicles and upscale businesses and homes. With the same pride it is tied on a piece of string to the lead rope of a burro.

Victor Villasenor, grandson of Mexican immigrants to the United States, wrote the story of his family, their life in Mexico, their struggle leaving the country during the revolution and their triumphs in California. In “ Rain of Gold ” he helps outsiders start to understand the one-on-one, member-of-the-family relationship Mexicans have with the Virgin when he tells of his grandmother taking a small glass of whiskey, and her cigarettes to the outhouse each morning, “To have a little talk with the Virgin.”

Huerta, who raised 11 children alone during the very difficult UFW years speaks for millions of Mexicans in many conditions when she says, “I don’t think I could have survived without her.”

Another Mexican said, “Everywhere I go, she is my guide, infusing me with a power that says, “ Si se Puede” (Yes it can be done)”

The always alert and in-charge face of a fiery Mexican woman who spent most of her working years in Hollywood softens, tears fill her eyes, when she speaks of the miracles that have occurred in her family thanks to the Virgin.
Asking most Mexicans what Guadalupe means to them draws incredulous stares and blank looks. They cannot fathom anyone NOT knowing the joy, help and love the Virgin brings to them.

It has never occurred to Guadalupanas that others could see the image as flat, and tacky, a two dimensional piece of religious art. They cannot believe that others are missing out on the unconditional love that makes the Virgin multi-dimensional, alive, and a very real part of the family. She IS, after all, their MOTHER, she is always there, waiting to be consulted, waiting to be consoling, waiting to listen, waiting to speak, to enfold them in her arms, to pull them on to her lap.

In times of joy, Mexicans turn first to light a candle of thanksgiving in front of her image, in the church or in their home. In the darkest despair, her candles light their way. Whether hoping to win a soccer game, a huge contract or the hand of their intended, their petitions and thoughts are always to the Virgin, who has helped so many times before.

World famous singer/song writer Juan Gabriel said, “I saw the Virgin of Guadalupe in Extramadura, Spain, and our Mexican one is better looking. I think I am in love with the image of the Virgin of Guadalupe.”

Recently when a Mexican businessman was asked about his feelings for Our Lady, he paused, took a deep breath, and with a voice deep with emotion, stated, “I love her.” No actor in any love scene ever stated those three words with more meaning.

On her special day, December 12, all of Mexico, and all Mexican sons and daughters on the other side gather for the celebration of the Virgin. An endless parade of pilgrims from the country’s four points appear at her Basilica with their flowers, songs, chants and prayers. They stream in processions led by indigenous dancers, to every church named for her. Wreaths of flowers adorn the signs of streets, neighborhoods, and towns bearing her name. Religious orders, churches and the millions of men, women, boys and girls named for her are especially joyous, as they share her special day.

The nation releases an immense sign of tenderness and experiences a profound expression of Mexican roots and essence and love for Our Lady, Virgen Maria de Guadalupe.

(Typical of the contrasts found in Mexico, devotees can now email petitions to Our Lady of Guadalupe at: hillescas@infosel.net.mx. The prayers of thanksgiving and petitions for assistance are printed out by a devoted researcher of the history of the Virgin and the miracles of her image. He then takes the emails to lay at her feet, free and confidentially. Once a month, also freely, a mass will be celebrated asking for all who have sent her their prayers, on the very spot when she appeared 530 years ago.)

Resources: Mexconnect.com  By: Judy King

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What Mexico Has Given to The World
Mexico has given the world so much. Certain contributions that Mexico has bestowed upon us may surprise you. Read on to catch a small glimpse of Mexico’s many gifts.

The Poinsettia
Each year, just before Christmas, poinsettia plants start to make their annual appearance in grocery and retail chains nationwide. The poinsettia has become synonymous with the Christmas holiday season and many bring this plant as a gift when visiting friends and family. Indeed, the plant’s bright red flowers lend a joyous presence to any environment and holiday decorations don’t seem complete without them. This plant is native to Mexico and originally came from a particular region near present-day Taxco. The Aztecs, whose name for the plant was ‘cuetlaxochitl’ used the poinsettia medicinally and also as a dye.

	Joel Roberts Poinsett

The plant adopted its current name after the first U.S. ambassador to Mexico, Joel Poinsett (1825-1829). This dignitary was so impressed with the plant that he had it shipped to his plantation in South Carolina.

Some decades later, in California, Albert Ecke, started to sell the flowers from his florist stand near Hollywood, California. It is believed he found the plant growing wild, in the foothills of present day Los Angeles. Ecke noticed that the plant’s flowers would bloom in a profusion of bright red around the Christmas holiday season. The plant proved enormously popular as a holiday decoration and a multi-million dollar business was born. Today, the base of operations is located in Encinitas, California, where the poinsettia is grown in greenhouses and shipped world-wide.

Chocolate
Chocolate is one of life’s true pleasures. When Cortes met with Montezuma, the Emperor of the Aztec Empire in 1519, he was presented with a frothy drink, presented in a golden goblet that was accompanied by a tortoise-shell spoon. This drink, a spicy blend of chiles, vanilla and ground cacao beans, was called ‘xocoatl’ which translated, means bitter water. Of course, Cortes’ eyes were riveted by the golden vessel that the exotic drink was served in. However, after tasting the golden cup’s contents, his taste buds were captivated by the exotic and invigorating taste of this native drink. Cortes soon learned that the cocoa bean was a valued means of currency, its pods utilized to purchase a variety of goods. When Cortes returned to Spain, his ships were heavily laden with gold and silver but also, amongst the cargo was the cocoa bean. Once this magical bean made its way to Europe, its evolution included the addition of sugar which led, ultimately to the creation of, what we now call today, chocolate.

Vanilla
Vanilla has enchanted people with its sublime taste for hundreds of years. The first people to cultivate it were the Totonacs, an indigenous people who resided near the Gulf of Mexico in present day Veracruz. Native to Mexico, the vanilla bean is derived from the world’s only known edible orchid. Vanilla is used as a flavoring agent in many desserts as well as exotic perfumes. Vanilla is the world’s second most expensive spice after saffron and delights connoisseurs the world over with its fabulous taste and unique attributes. Today, much of vanilla’s production occurs in Madagascar in the Tropics, however, its birthplace will always be Mexico.

The Avocado
The ancient Aztecs held the avocado in high esteem. Today, this wondrous fruit is enjoyed daily the world over, frequently eaten as guacamole. The avocado is native to Mexico, Central America and South America. The Spanish conquistadors, upon discovering this fruit, applauded its attributes in letters written to the crown. They even discovered that the seed, when crushed, releases a red dye that works extremely well for inking documents. Some of these documents survive today. Another name for the avocado is ‘alligator pear’ due to the rough green texture of its skin and shape. The avocado is a nutrient-rich super food, containing more beta carotene than any other fruit and surprisingly, exceeding the banana in potassium content. As well, the avocado contains many other important vitamins and minerals. The Aztecs definitely knew a good thing when they tasted it!

Tequila
The history of tequila is an interesting one. For thousands of years in Mexico, a sacred drink called pulque was enjoyed, a fermented beverage. Pulque is made from a type of agave, the maguey, which is native to Mexico. Due to the plants appearance, oftentimes it is mistaken for a cacti. The agave was used historically by the indigenous peoples of Mexico for a wide variety of uses. The leaves produce fibers that can be made into rope, clothing and paper. Its flowers and stalks are edible and the sap of the plant produces a sweet liquid called ‘aguamiel’ (honey water).

The Spanish conquistadors, upon their arrival in Mexico, were keenly interested in the Aztec’s drink of choice, pulque. Curious and motivated, with their supplies of brandy running low, the Spaniards set out to make their own beverage from the agave. Promptly, they had distilling pots sent over from Spain and as a result, North America’s first indigenous distilled alcohol was born. Some decades later, a Spanish aristocrat discovered the blue agave plant which grows in a specific region of Mexico, in Jalisco state. It is the blue agave that Tequila is derived from. The rest is history, as they say. Today tequila is considered Mexico’s national drink and even has a city named in its honor, aptly named Tequila.

The Jumping Bean
Mexican jumping beans have delighted children for ages and definitely have a bit of magic about them. Placed in the hand, the little beans begin to ‘jump’, seemingly on their own accord. Many adults have fond childhood memories of being mesmerized by the jumping beans’ antics. Not quite a toy but definitely a curiosity, the jumping bean needs to be credited for untold hours of amusement. Interestingly, however, jumping beans are not beans at all. Deep in the deserts of mainland Mexico as well as in certain parts of Baja California, a native plant grows that gives ‘birth’, so to speak, to the jumping bean. This plant bears flowers that moths find particularly attractive. These moths lay their eggs on the plant, inside a seed capsule. As the egg begins to grow, it starts to move around as the moth larvae inside develops. This is the famous Mexican jumping bean. Should conditions be ripe, some months later, a moth will emerge from the ‘bean’ and the cycle carries on.

Chewing Gum
Deep in the heart of the Yucatan Peninsula grows the tropical sapodilla tree, whose trunk, when cut, oozes a milky white substance called chicle. This ingredient, in combination with flavorings and sugar, created the basis of our modern day chewing gum. Since time immemorial people have chewed on a variety of substances, ranging from sweet grass to wax to tobacco.

However, it is chicle that deserves credit for the gum industry as we know it today. And, curiously enough, it is General and Mexican President Antonio Lopez de Santa Anna who helped bring this event to fruition. While in exile in the U.S., Santa Anna thought he had a great business idea. He imported chicle from Mexico in hopes it could be used as a rubber substitute in carriage tires. Alas, the chicle proved not suitable for this purpose. However, a business acquaintance named Thomas Adams, who had purchased the chicle from Santa Anna, discovered another use for the product, namely chewing gum. A whole industry was born and ‘chiclets’ became available in every corner drug store, to the joy of children everywhere. Today, the vast majority of chewing gum is produced with a less expensive substitute than natural chicle. However, the ‘real thing’ can still be found in certain specialty shops nationwide.

Resources: Mexonline.com

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Resource: Mexonline.com

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Have you been thinking about getting married in Mexico? Many couples see Mexico as a wonderful and exciting place to get married and it’s both affordable and convenient. Wedding planners can take almost all of the hassle out of the process and make life easier for the bride and groom. Be sure to check our resources first to help you in your plans, in our Getting Married in Mexico section. Mexonline.com.

Getting married in Mexico has become an extremely popular option for people from all over the world, who often combine their wedding ceremony with their honeymoon vacation. Below, you’ll find a general list of information on what needs to be done to be able to get married in Mexico. Please remember that this information is general, and can vary from state to state. Please check with the proper authorities, or you may choose a wedding coordinator (both are listed below).

Civil ceremonies are the only ones recognized in Mexico. A religious ceremony can be had, but it isn’t considered official.

You must have tourist cards and/or a visa plus passports. No Mexican residential requirements are applicable. Marriages are performed at the “Oficina del Registro Civil” (Civil Registers Office) for a fee ( ranging from $100 to $250 in resort areas). Every city and small town has an office. Most people in this office do not speak English. This is where a wedding coordinator comes in handy if you don’t speak Spanish. The marriage ceremony can be performed elsewhere, but please check with the office for information and extra fees.

If you are ivorced people cannot marry in Mexico until one year after their finalized divorce (this may vary in different areas and proof of divorce may be enough). Minors under 18 can not marry without written & notarized permission from a parent or legal guardian. Some states may require a waiting period of a few days.

You’ll need to present the following;

• A current passport with tourist card or visa (make copies of each)
• Certified copies of your birth certificate
• An application stating whether that you wish to marry (available at the Civil Registers Office)
• If divorced in Mexico, a certificated decree from the Mexican Consular Office
• A blood test done in Mexico (the CRO will recommend a doctor/clinic) – There is a fee (as high as $60 in some resorts)
• Two legally qualified witnesses (over 18) who must be present for each person

You’ll receive your copy of the marriage certificate at the CRO. Make sure you get certified copies now, so you don’t have to go through the trouble at a later date.

NOTE: Foreigners wishing to marry Mexican citizens must obtain authorization from the National Institute of Migration (Instituto Nacional de Migracion). This will take a bit longer and there will be more paper work to process.

Resources: Mexonline.com

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Batopilas

Batopilas’ local church

Although there were various mining centers that were formed at the bottom of some canyons, such as Urique, Maguarichi, Uruachi and Ocampo, none can compare with the mineral richness of the Batopilas Canyon. The veins of La Bufa and those of the town of Batopilas itself reached renown of a world level. Its mining towns and mines characterize and identify this canyon. Among the outstanding are La Bufa, Batopilas, Cerro Colorado, the Raramuri communities of Munérachi and La Yerbabuena, and the Jesuit mission of Satevó.In spite of the fact that the climate is extreme in the high regions of the canyon range, in the winter it is possible to admire a curious phenomenon – while the surrounding peaks are covered with snow the depths of the canyon are a subtropical or tropical climate year around. Due to this, towns like Batopilas have flora and fauna with many different characteristics than in the Sierras above. Oranges, papaya, mango, avocado are regular staples of the habitants. Bougainvillas and tabachine (a flowering tree) are among the tropical vegetation. Animals may include parrots, rosy boas, deer, and even possibly jaguar.

A Brief Bit of History – Batopilas is considered the “Treasure of the Sierra Madre” because of it’s historic past and present beauty. Founded in 1709 as San Pedro de Batopilas when the Batopilas mines were discovered, the small pueblo slowly, but steadily flourished due to this mining activity.

The Jesuit mission of San Miguel de Satevó, just outside the town, is known as the “Lost Mission” as there are no records describing it’s existence. Believed to have been constructed in the 1760′s, the mission is one of the canyon’s best preserved. It’s setting is ideal near the edge of the Batopilas River.

The silver mines of Batopilas were some of the richest in Mexico. In the 18th and 19th century both Spaniards and Mexicans gained great wealth out of the area. American John Robinson purchased an old claim in 1861 which turned out to have a large, hidden vein. He decided to sell the claim to fellow American Alexander Shepherd for $600,000 US in 1880.

Alexander Shepherd was the last mayor of Washington, D.C. and had been ousted under unproven corruption charges. Once Shepherd moved his family to Batopilas, he filed over 350 mining claims and formed the Batopilas Mining Company. His mines became some of the wealthiest in the world at their peak.

Noting the difficulty and time (over eight days) of transporting the silver ore to Chihuahua, Shepherd opened his own facilities and foundry along the river at his Hacienda San Miguel. Over 20 million ounces of silver were extracted from the mines, and this great wealth allowed Shepherd to bring cultural events and technological advances to this once sleepy town. Batopilas was the second city in Mexico to have electricty. His hydroelectric works provide the towns power still and he also built an aqueduct which is still in use today. So famous for it’s wealth were Shepherd’s mines that Pancho Villa once robbed a mule shipment of $40,000 US in silver bars.

Alexander Shepherd died in 1902, leaving the mines to his sons who ceased operation in 1920, although other miners would later try unsuccessfully to restart the old mines. In 1938, one son, Grant Shepherd, wrote The Silver Magnet about life in Batopilas and Alexander Shepherd. It is an excellent description about this once world famous town.

Ruins of the Alexander Shepherd’s Hacienda San Miguel Tropical vegetation in Batopilas  The 17th century “Lost Mission” of Satevó Today, the town of Batopilas is a community of 800 inhabitants, but in it’s greatest mining period at the end of the 19th century, it had up to 7,000 inhabitants. It has preserved, to a great extent, it’s architectural heritage from the richness of those times.

To get to Batopilas

Local miner on the road to Batopilas

You can get here either from Creel or Guachochi,  but either way you will need to take the road that connects them. At kilometer 70, take the detour to Samachique. From here it’s 55 kilometers on a dirt road which descends dramatically to Batopilas giving you some of the canyon’s most exceptional views. Use caution as this road has some sharp cutbacks and is rather narrow in some areas. La Bufa is the perfect spot for a commanding view of the Batopilas Canyon system.Most visitors choose to take a tour company to the canyon’s bottom, both for the safety factor of an experienced canyon driver, and for the opportunity to take photos and take in the view. Most drivers will pull over upon request. Creel is the perfect place to set up this trip.

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Puerto Vallarta's Famous Beach Side Church

When you think of the Mexican Riviera, with its palm-fringed beaches, luxuriant jungle vegetation and posh resorts, many places come to mind. But no resort better typifies the classic Mexican beach vacation than does Puerto Vallarta. From its sleepy, seaside village roots, it has grown into one of Mexico’s most loved destinations.

As you arrive by plane, Puerto Vallarta‘s romance and beauty begin to take hold, a blanket of lush tropical jungle surrounds the quaint colonial city as it climbs away from the blue Pacific, into the Sierra Cualemountains.

Nestled on the shores of Bahía de Banderas (Mexico’s largest natural bay) and spread between the states of Jalisco and Nayarit, Vallarta traces its history back to the 1500′s when it was first visited by Spanish explorers. It later became know as a respite for pirates plying the Pacific coast.

Watching The Sunset From the Boardwalk

Puerto Vallarta remained a small village until 1963. That is the year that director John Huston decided to film his movie, “Night of the Iguana” starring Ava Gardner & Richard Burton, in Puerto Vallarta. Elizabeth Taylor flew down to be with Richard Burton in one of the most famous Hollywood affairs of the time. Both actors purchased homes in Puerto Vallarta, thus beginning its reputation as an international getaway.

Puerto Vallarta now has over 250,000 inhabitants, and welcomes more than 1.5 million annual visitors. Despite its popularity and the recent flurry of new resort developments, the city retains much of its “Old Mexico” flair. The city is graced with lovely architecture, cobblestone streets, and white stucco buildings crowned by flower-covered balconies and red-tile roofs.

You’ll find all sorts of lodgings available from budget inns to world class beachfront resorts. Outdoor recreation is limitless. Every imaginable water sport is available along Puerto Vallarta‘s sandy shoreline. Fishing, diving, sailing, jet skiing and parasailing to name a few.

Shopping is some of Mexico’s finest due to the numerous galleries and shops featuring both international and Mexican wares. Puerto Vallarta also has many fine restaurants to choose from including traditional Mexican, French, Italian, Asian and American. The nightlife varies from small piano lounges to sports cafe to all night discos.

Today, Puerto Vallarta is a world class resort, while retaining the charm of a century ago. The stunning backdrop of the Sierra Madre mountains and it’s 41 km. (24 miles) of coastline provide for the ultimate vacation or living situation. Puerto Vallarta is like no other place in Mexico and most who come, yearn to return.

Enjoy your trip to Puerto Vallarta & let me know how it went for you.

Resources: Mexonline.com

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The Tarahumara or Raramuri, as they call themselves, inhabit the Copper Canyon, as it is known in the U.S., or the Sierra Tarahumara in northwest Mexico. The actual name Tarahumara was what the first Spanish called these Native American people.

The Spanish originally encountered the Tarahumara throughout Chihuahua upon arrival in the 1500′s, but as the Spanish encroached on their civilization the shy and private Tarahumara retreated for the nearly inaccessible canyons of the Sierra Tarahumara. Only the Jesuit missionaries followed at first and with only scattered success.

	Tarahumara

After mineral wealth was discovered in the mountains, many areas where Tarahumara Indians lived became desirable lands to the miners & mining companies forcing the Tarahumara once again to head farther into the remote canyons. Today, the Tarahumara are Mexico’s second largest native Indian group with between 50,000 & 70,000 people.

Today the Tarahumara live in caves, under cliffs and in small wood and stone cabins in remote areas. They live a simple life undisturbed by modern technologies.

They are known as a quiet and considerate people who are expert farmers and runners. Rarámuri has been translated to mean “runners” in their native language. Due to severe drought in northern Mexico, the Tarahumara have suffered famine in the past few years.

	Copper Canyon

Corn is the main staple along with beans. Potatoes, and apples can also be found. Some Tarahumara raise domesticated animals such as goats and cattle. Fish, small game & herbs (a Tarahumara speciality) round out their diet.

Traditional clothing for the Tarahumara consists of a white cloth shirt, sometimes with colorful prints, white cloth pants or wraparounds with colorful belts or accessories. Headbands of cloth usually red are worn upon the head. Sandals or huaraches are the footwear of choice.

Running is what the Tarahumara may be most legendary for in the world. Relief and various organizations have entered Tarahumara runners into events such as the “Leadville 100-Mile” in Colorado. The runners have surprised many by running in their tire-soled sandals and winning some of the these long distance races.

	Tarahumara ceremony.

Running or “foot throwing” has always been a tradition and necessity of the Tarahumara. It is their only mode of transportation and many of the small communities are far apart. They also have their own events, and this is were “foot throwing” comes into effect. It is a competition known as Rarjíparo and consists of a small wooden ball which is “thrown by the foot” by teams in race to finish before the other teams. The races can last days. The Tarahumara are very religious and desire their privacy and respect if you should happen unto their festivals. Two larger events are Semana Santa (Easter Week) and the Fiesta Guadalupana in December. These religious rites are a mixture of Christian and Tarahumara beliefs.

There are also other times of celebrations, such as harvests, which are interwoven with tesgüino. It is an alcoholic beverage made of corn and grasses that is good only for a couple of days after it is brewed. Natives will drink until passed out in some cases.

The Mexican Government recommends asking for permission when taking photos, entering accommodations or crossing Tarahumara land. Respect all celebrations as well as rights to privacy by these proud, but quiet people.

For more information on the Tarahumara Indians and the Copper Canyon region they inhabit also see
Copper Canyon

Resource: Mexonline.com. Posted by Aetna Jo Buitron on March 26, 2011.

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