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Who were the Aztecs from Mexico.

This is the story of a wandering tribe from Northern Mexico who through bravery, trickery, cruelty, genius became a great civilization.

There are stories to read, explanations to understand, pictures to think about, ancient writings to decode, pictures of artefacts and temples … even a giant sunstone.

By 1376, the city was growing quickly … they built larger and larger temples … people came from miles around to live in their city … Tenochtitlan. They chose a man called  Acamapichtli as their first emperor. He ruled until 1395.

The city and the Aztecs were all powerful… an EMPIRE.

By 1519 there were about 60,000 people in the city every day.

The Aztecs brought their many gods and goddesses with them.

As a farming people, the Aztec knew the forces of nature and worshiped them as gods. Most important was their sun god, Huitzilopochtli. The Aztecs also used him as their god of war.

They believed that their ‘good’ gods should be kept strong to keep away the ‘bad’ gods. They kept them strong by making human sacrifices.

They had many stories about their gods.   Read some of them.

Aztec Gods

Aztec god

Before the Sun that now shines brightly over Mexico came into being, there had been other suns; four in all.

Each sun died away in turn before our present Sun appeared.

The fourth Sun, Chalchuitlicu, had been a water goddess, copper-coloured and dressed in emerald green.

For hundreds of years she provided light and warmth; and in that time the first men and women appeared on Earth.

But other gods grew jealous of the Sun God; some reproached her for giving fire to humans — for they did not always use it wisely.

Tezcatlipoca upsets Chalchuitlicu and causes a flood.

One night, the black God of Darkness, Tezcatlipoca, began to torment the gentle copper Sun while she was resting in the gloom. He said she’d grown too vain and selfish.

In her hurt at these false words, Chalchuitlicu burst into tears. The tears put out her light and then the sky rained down upon the Earth in torrents.

The land vanished into darkness beneath a mighty flood which drowned all  human life: every man and woman turned into fish; all, that is, save one lone family which survived to start the human race again.

The gods make dry land appear …

When the sky thus fell on Earth, the gods opened up four roads beneath the land, where they created four giants and some sturdy trees. And then, together — the gods, the trees, the giants — all tried to lift the Earth from under the vales of tears.

They heaved and pushed until the land rose upwards and the waters fell away. At last they managed to fasten the land securely to the sky.

Now there was only darkness …

But the Earth was still plunged into utter gloom; it had no dawn, no dusk, no sunlit days. The vales of tears were salty; there was thus no fresh water, for no Sun appeared to draw the tears back up to heaven and change them into rain.

Aztec god

Tlaloc was the Aztec rain god

His name means He Who Makes Things Sprout.

Tlaloc was the eighth ruler of the days and the ninth lord of the nights.

Tlaloc was pictured as a man wearing a net of clouds, a crown of heron feathers, foam sandals and carrying rattles to make thunder.

Tlaloc lived in a place the Aztecs called Tlalocan. He lived there with  his companion, Chalchiuhtlicue (She Who Wears a Jade Skirt), also called Matlalcueye (She Who Wears a Green Skirt), the goddess of freshwater lakes and streams. Tlalocan was also the place where all people who had drowned ‘lived’.

Part of The Teocalli (Great Temple) at Tenochtitlan, the Aztec capital, was dedicated to Tlaloc, and was painted in white and blue.

Tlaloc was  greatly feared.

He could send out the rain or provoke drought and hunger.

Aztec god

He hurled lightning upon the earth and unleashed the devastating hurricanes.

It was believed that he could send down to the earth different kinds of rain which would help crops grow or destroy them.

Certain illnesses, such as dropsy, leprosy, and rheumatism, were said to be caused by Tlaloc.

Quetzalcoatl

(from quetzalli, “precious feather,” and coatl, “snake”), the Feathered Serpent, was one of the major gods of the Aztecs.

Quetzalcoatl was the god of morning and the evening star.

Aztec god

As the morning and evening star, Quetzalcoatl was the symbol of death and resurrection.

With his friend, Xolotl, a dog-headed god, he was said to have descended to the underground hell of Mictlan to gather the bones of the ancient dead. Those bones he smeared with his own blood, giving birth to the men who inhabit the present universe.

Quetzalcoatl was often shown as a man with a beard named Ehecatl, the wind god. Sometimes he was shown wearing a mask with two protruding tubes (through which the wind blew) and a conical hat.

The temple Quetzalcoatl at Tenochtitlan, the Aztec capital, was a round building, a shape that fitte

d Ehecatl. Circular temples were believed to please Ehecatl because they offered no sharp obstacles to the wind.

TEZCATLIPOCA -

The god of the Great Bear constellation and of the night sky.

Tezcatlipoca’s animal disguise, was the jaguar, the spotted skin of which was compared to the starry sky.

Tezcatlipoca was usually drawn with a stripe of black paint across his face and an obsidian (black glass ) mirror in place of one of his feet (his name means Smoking Mirror).

Sometimes drawings show  Tezcatlipoca with his mirror on his chest.

In it he saw everything, he knew all the deeds and thoughts of men.
He was said to appear at crossroads at night to challenge warriors.

He presided over the telpochcalli (“young men’s houses”), district schools in which the sons of the common people received an education and military training.

He was the protector of slaves, he severely punished masters who ill-treated “Tezcatlipoca’s beloved children.” He rewarded goodness by giving riches and fame, and he punished wrongdoers by sending them sickness (e.g. leprosy) or by giving them poverty and slavery.

Every year, during the fifth month, the priest selected a young and handsome war prisoner. For one year he lived in princely luxury, pretending to be the god. Four beautiful girls dressed as goddesses were chosen as his companions. On the appointed feast day he climbed the steps of a small temple while breaking flutes that he had played. At the top he was sacrificed by the removal of his heart! What a price to pay!

I hope you have enjoyed learning this part of the Aztecs and Mexican history.

The artist José Guadalupe Posada was born in 1852 in Aguacalientes, Mexico. Many consider Posada the founder of modern Mexican art. As well, Posada is credited with educating the general populace concerning the political injustices of the day which ultimately culminated in the Mexican Revolution of 1910. His beginnings were humble, being born the seventh son to working-class parents of Indian descent.

Posada is most remembered for his engraved illustrations of calaveras (skeletons) set in political satire. His work remains vital today, oftentimes utilized to commemorate the Dia de los Muertos (Day of the Dead) holiday, celebrated throughout Mexico each year on November 1st and 2nd..

Posada In Front of His Taller

Posada’s talent was recognized at an early age. He became an apprentice to the printer and publisher Jose Trinidad Pedroza at the age of 16. It was under his mentor’s tutelage that he learned the art of printmaking which focused on lithography as well as engraving on wood and metal. The shop where he worked, El Esfuerzo, located in the city of Aguascalientes also served as a meeting place where members of the community would discuss political and social issues of the day. This environment that Posada found himself in undoubtedly helped shape his political opinions and ultimately, his art.

Posada’s work drew controversy almost immediately. Pedroza assigned the young artist to engrave a satirical cartoon of a local politician and needless to say, the response from the authorities was not favorable. His caricature was so compelling and created such an uproar that both teacher and student had to flee town to escape the wrath of those offended. Posada’s career had begun.

Soon established in his new city of Leon, Posada’s work began to appear in magazines. Some of these early works were political in nature but not all. Posada’s other avenues of output included making artwork for purely commercial purposes, such as providing illustrations for matchbox covers, designing logos or engraving book cover designs. Posada married and began teaching lithography at a local school. Busy and fulfilled, his life went on uninterrupted until the year 1888, when a traumatic flood occurred in the city and Posada was again forced to relocate.

Calaveras Bailando

Mexico City became Posada’s new place of residence. He set up his own shop and worked for a variety of publishers on a free-lance basis. The artist forged an important liaison with Antonio Vanegas Arroyo, the leading publisher in the city. Together they created “hojas volantes”(flying leaves) which were one-page papers or broadsheets, distributed on the city streets for a penny a piece. These printed one-page documents covered a whole host of topics, ranging from moral stories to high-society gossip to songs that were illustrated (corridos).

Increasingly, Posada turned to the symbolism of the calavera (skeleton) to depict his illustrations that were filled with political satire. The dictatorship of Porfirio Diaz was in full swing at this time and social injustices were rampant. The decision to utilize skeletons in his illustrations had a two-fold effect. Graphically speaking, these images jump off the page, so to speak and cannot be ignored. As well, the people responded to the symbolism of the calavera as it was a deeply ingrained in their culture and subconscious. After all, the blood of their ancestors still ran in their veins, blood that was indigenous and not European. Many pre-Columbian civilizations decorated temples with skulls and had a deep fascination with death. While perhaps macabre on its surface, the symbolism of the calavera, which is in essence death, was a reminder that physical life is temporal while the spirit is eternal. Additionally, Posada’s intent was to show that in death everyone is equal, despite one’s economic status or position in life, death is the great equalizer that spares no one.

Hernan Cortes -His First Adventures

Another illustrator that worked in Arroyo’s shop, Manuel Manilla, also utilized the symbolism of the calavera in his engravings. Together with Posada’s prodigious contributions, the amount of calaveras (skeleton illustrations) this group produced was enormous and became very popular with the masses. Although many people were illiterate, they could still “read” what the illustrations were saying, a tribute to their effectiveness. As the often quoted saying goes “…a picture says a thousand words….”.

Posada was extremely prolific with the amount of work he produced in his life. Although the true number of engravings he made cannot be ascertained, some place the number as high as 20,000 works. Of these, it has been reported that an estimated 2,000 engravings have survived.

Undoubtedly, a technique that Posada invented helped him enormously both in production as well as expression. Well acquainted with the traditional printmaking technique of lithography, Posada also worked on wood blocks as well as zinc plates. Interested, however, in increasing his output, his experimentations led him to a new technique. Using acid-resistant ink, he would draw directly onto the metal plate and then place the plate in an acid-solution that quickly embedded the drawing. This plate, in turn, could be placed on the printing press at the same time as the type was placed, thereby saving an enormous amount of time and increasing production.

The Revolution

Posada’s new technique developed just prior to the Mexican Revolution of 1910. The output dramatically increased at Arroyo’s shop and the one-cent papers were being widely distributed on the streets of Mexico City. Posada’s illustrations have been credited with raising awareness enormously concerning the political injustices and abuses of the day. While he diligently worked from dawn to dusk, Posada was contributing greatly to the work of the revolutionaries who sought justice from the evils of Porfirio Diaz’s dictatorship.

As well, Posada played a pivotal role in the development of Diego Rivera’s work. Rivera was inspired by Posada’s attention to working-class concerns as well as his expressive artistic technique. While attending the San Carlos Academy of Art in Mexico City, Rivera would often stop by to visit Posada and watch him work. Years later, Rivera credited Posada as having been a great influence on his own artwork and direction. One of Rivera’s famous paintings, “Dream of a Sunday Afternoon in Alameda Park” pays a visual homage to Posada. Rivera included the famous skeleton image of the “Catrina” that Posada so often employed, a symbolic representation of a typical society-woman from turn-of-the- century Mexico.

Diego Rivera, Dream of a Sunday Afternoon

In addition to Rivera, Posada proved an inspiration to Jose Clemente Orozco, who as a boy would visit Posada in his workshop. In his autobiography, Orozco writes, “This was my awakening to the existence of the art of painting. I became one of the most faithful customers in Vanegas Arroyo’s retail shop . . . .” Posada’s influence was so great and he influenced so many that somehow it doesn’t seem right that the artist died in obscurity and poverty. He died quietly in the year 1913, alone and penniless and was buried in a common grave.

Some years later, a French artist by the name of Jean Charlot was collaborating on a mural with Diego Rivera in Mexico City. Charlot, walking the streets of the city, came upon Posada’s work which was still being used to illustrate the daily one-cent papers. Deeply intrigued and interested, Charlot began to feverishly collect Posada’s work. As well, he published an article about Posada that was widely read and admired. Charlot proved instrumental in bringing international awareness to the importance of Posada’s work and his place in history.

Today, Posada’s work is housed in various collections throughout the world. A museum dedicated to the artist is located in Posada’s hometown of Aguascalientes, Mexico. The Museo Jose Guadalupe Posada features prints along with the original metal plates that were used to create them. Although Posada the man is deceased, his work lives on, perhaps the greatest triumph over death there is.

I hope you’ve enjoyed this as much as I have. There is so much interesting Mexican history and culture, that I sometime have difficulty deciding what to post. Is there something in particular that you would enjoy reading about? Just drop a message or comment and I’ll be more than happy to oblige. Enjoy!

Resources: Mexonline .com

Cholula Pyramid

THE GREAT PYRAMID OF CHOLULA, Cholula, Puebla

Located on the central plateau of Mexico, hidden to the naked eye, sits the world’s largest ancient pyramid. The town where this wonder is located is Cholula, a small village just outside Puebla. Upon first glance, one sees only the charming colonial church of La Iglesia de los Remedios, built in the 16th century. Amazingly, however, this church sits atop the Great Pyramid of Tepanapa, oftentimes referred to as the Cholula Pyramid. Hidden by vegetation, the hill upon which the church was built, actually houses the great pyramid.

The history of the pyramid, coupled with the momentous events which followed, is full of drama and mystery. Approximately one hundred years before Christ, the pyramid’s construction begun. Cholula, by this time, was already one of Mexico’s largest cities, having been settled circa 1700 B.C. The pyramid’s construction along with affiliated temples, was carried out by various groups over hundreds of years. Its early period coincided with the great city of Teotihuacan’s development and power.

Inside Cholula Pyramid

An important ceremonial and political center of the pre-Columbian world, Cholula mirrored Teotihuacan’s glory days of power. As well, its first subsequent demise coincided with that of Teotihuacan. But unlike the great city to the northwest, whose people mysteriously disappeared, some residual peoples remained in Cholula, not abandoning the city entirely. Expansion of the pyramid continued with the arrival of the Olmec-Xicallancas, who further added to the pyramid’s scale.

The Toltec-Chichimecas occupied Cholula next, circa 1100 A.D. By that time the great pyramid was already largely submerged underneath tree and dirt. The Toltecs chose to focus their activity on building new temples which would surround the area of the great pyramid. The Toltecs also brought with them their intense devotion of Quetzalcoatl. Cholula subsequently became a mecca for pilgrims from all over Mexico, who flocked to the city to pay homage to the feathered serpent God.

Quetzalcoatl, already a long established deity of the Mesoamerican world, undoubtedly helped to inspire the pyramid’s initial construction. However, with the arrival of the Toltecs, the cult of Quetzalcoatl truly flourished. Additionally, under the rule of the Toltecs, Cholula became a major center for trade and commerce. Having established strong ties with all other cities in the region, Cholula maintained its independence for a time from the ever expanding Aztec Empire.

However, the Aztecs eventually took control of Cholula. When Cortes arrived in 1519, the pyramid, stood silent, hidden under grass and stone. The city’s population at this time equaled 100,000 inhabitants. Legend advises an ambush was planned by the Cholulans against the Spanish invaders under the direction of Montezuma. No longer swayed by Cortes whom he initially believed to be the reincarnation of Quetzalcoatl, the Aztec ruler made one last attempt to save his empire. Unfortunately, Cortes learned of the plan and what followed next was horrific: the slaughter of 6,000 Cholulan residents took place under the brutal command of Cortes.

Restored Stairway Cholula Pyramid

Temples were torn down and the ancient city of Cholula was destroyed. Cortes proclaimed that he would build a church in the area for each day of the year to match the number of temples destroyed. Drunk with power and with gold on his mind, Cortes failed to see the great pyramid.

Centuries elapsed before the pyramid was again discovered. In 1910, construction began on an insane asylum located at the base of the pyramid. Archaeologists once aware of the site began to survey and excavate. In the 1930’s, tunnels were made in order to better study the pyramid. These tunnels, which amount to an amazing five miles worth of passageways, zigzag in subterranean fashion, creating a labyrinth, not for the timid. These tunnels afford the visitor the opportunity of observing first-hand the various levels of construction. Delineated layers of shell and stone are visible. A total of four stages of construction occurred, over hundreds of years. Although lit with lamps, the atmosphere is definitely haunting and you most assuredly want to exit before nightfall.

In addition to the tunnels, outside there are altars, stairways and platforms to explore. One can also see a portion of the pyramid which was reconstructed by archaeologists. Not only does the pyramid of Cholula represent the largest single structure in Mexico, it also bears the distinction of having the largest base of any pyramid in the world, exceeding the bases of the great pyramids in Egypt. The total acreage the pyramid occupies is 25 acres with a height reaching an impressive 181 feet. Each side of the structure’s base is over 1300 feet in length.

When visiting the great pyramid of Cholula one is also afforded a magnificent view of the majestic snow-capped El Popocatepetl and Iztaccihuatl volcanoes. The pyramid of Cholula is truly a wondrous pre-Columbian gem. The site holds the potential of even greater discoveries and with only a small portion yet excavated, who knows what marvelous secrets the great pyramid has yet to reveal.

Mexican President Lazaro Cardenas

Mexico is a country rich in history and rich in natural resources with oil being the nation’s most precious commodity. President Lázaro Cárdenas (1934-1940) is the man responsible for securing Mexico’s vast oil profits for its citizens. His act of nationalizing the nation’s oil fields remains in place today.

The calendar date of March 18th, 1938, is remembered throughout the country as the day of “Expropiación Petrolera” (Oil Expropriation). Today, the topic of the country’s most valuable natural resource remains controversial. Currently, there is renewed discussion concerning the prospect of foreign companies drilling for oil in Mexico. Many are adamantly opposed to the suggestion, as it conflicts directly with Mexico’s Constitution.

In 1938, President Cárdenas expropriated all the nation’s oil production from foreign entities, namely the United Kingdom, the Netherlands and the United States. Up to this time, only international companies were drilling for oil in Mexico. The president was led to this bold move because the people of Mexico were being taken advantage of. Mexican workers were being paid only a portion of what their international counterparts were being paid and understandably, this situation created a great deal of labor unrest. Indeed, strikes were occurring regularly, disrupting production and causing widespread havoc.

In addition to these significant labor concerns, there was also an important underlying resentment growing towards foreign oil companies operating in Mexico. The populace was becoming increasingly aware that their country was not benefiting from its own resources. The foreign oil companies had been enjoying unprecedented profits from Mexico’s “black gold”. This basic discrepancy combined with the gross labor injustices being committed finally reached a crescendo of intolerable proportions. President Cárdenas met with representatives of the foreign companies operating in Mexico to try and resolve these issues.

These meetings, however, were not fruitful and the parties involved were unable to reach an agreement. On March 18th, 1938, President Cárdenas officially expropriated all oil assets from the international companies operating in Mexico. Drawing upon Article 27 of the Constitution of 1917, President Cárdenas declared Mexico’s oil belonged to the country and the people of Mexico. He made this announcement on national radio to the country’s citizens before he told members of his own cabinet. This incredible decision by President Cárdenas had profound consequences.

The people of Mexico were thrilled with the president’s bold course of action. Tens of thousands of the country’s citizens celebrated in the streets of Mexico to honor this historical event. Women donated their jewelry and silver to the government to help compensate the foreign companies whose assets had been seized. Naturally, the international companies affected by the sudden turn of events had a much different response than that of the nation’s populace. Outrage was followed by retaliation. An international boycott against Mexican oil was implemented. The intent was to punish Mexico and to bring ruin to Petróleos Mexicanos (PEMEX), the newly founded Mexican oil company instituted by President Lazaro Cárdenas. Both Mexico and PEMEX however survived the international boycott and today, PEMEX continues to be Mexico’s sole petroleum operator.

Have you enjoyed this article on Mexico’s history? I find it so fascinating. Leave a comment and let me know. Until next time, enjoy.

Resource: Mexonline.com  Posted By Aetna J B April 30,2010

Famous Women of Mexico

Sor Juana de la Cruz

Sor Juana Inés de la Cruz
One of Mexico’s most remarkable women was a nun who lived in the 17th century. Sor Juana Ines de la Cruz was an outstanding writer and poet whose works were extremely controversial for their time. Considered to be Mexico’s first feminist, Juana Ines de la Cruz was an extraordinary woman. Today her image graces the 200-peso note, a testimony to her achievements and place in history.

Although Juana demonstrated unusual abilities from a young age, her beginnings wouldn’t initially suggest great potential. Born in the year 1651 (with some reports advising 1648) to an unwed mother, Juana grew up in the shadow of the Popocatepetl volcano, to a poor but educated family during Mexico’s colonial period.

Juana was known to be an intellectually precocious child. It is widely documented that she knew how to read by three years of age. Her quest for learning was seemingly unquenchable. Legend advises that as a young girl, Juana sought out her Grandfather’s library and read its entire 3,000 volumes. Juana’s scholarly pursuits included the study of poetry and learning to speak Latin fluently. She reportedly mastered the language after receiving just 20 lessons. If being a child prodigy wasn’t enough, Juana was also known for her amazing beauty.

At a young age, Juana left home to live with her aunt in Mexico City. Her presence and abilities did not go unnoticed. She soon became a favorite at the Royal Court where she would impress visitors with her wit and scope of knowledge. Given her many gifts, both intellectual and physical, one might assume that Juana soon married. However, to the apparent surprise of many, Juana chose instead the monastic life. Some reports suggest a failed love affair may have led to Juana’s decision. However, Juana, apparently when asked about her choice, replied that life in a convent was her only option, as the environment provided the necessary atmosphere in which she could continue her studies.

Once safely ensconced in the walls of the convent, Juana fully immersed herself in the disciplines of theology, science, history, music and literature. In addition to her studies, Juana also corresponded with the leading poets and scholars of the day. Inspired, Juana began to write her own poetry. She proved to be no ordinary scribe, indeed her works proved to be both brilliant and highly controversial. Juana wrote several pieces that were revolutionary, especially for the time period in which she found herself in.

Portrait of Sor Juana Inés de la Cruz

Another hallmark work of Juana’s is a letter she wrote in response to a critique. This famous letter, ‘Respuesta a Sor Filotea’ (Response to Sister Filotea) was prompted by an angry letter she received where a supposed colleague criticized her secular leanings, admonished her to abandon her writings and commit herself solely to religion. In truth, the author was the Bishop of Puebla who disguised his true identity. This bishop was a supposed friend of Juana’s and thus the betrayal was double.

Bank Note with Sor Juana Inés de la Cruz

Today, Sor Juana continues to be studied and her prolific writings continue to inspire others as witnessed by the late Nobel Prize winner Octavio Paz’ book on Sor Juana’s life, ‘Sor Juana Or, the Traps of Faith’. Each year in Mexico a festival is held in her honor that is sponsored by the National Museum of Mexican Art. There is also a corresponding achievement award which celebrates women of Mexican descent who have made noteworthy accomplishments in the arts and cultural disciplines.

I hope that you have enjoyed this article about famous women of Mexico as much as I have. Let me know if there’s something in particular you would like me to publish.

Resource: Mexonline.com  Posted By Aetna J B April 26,2010

In Mexico, La Malinche is caught between two worlds

In the 16th century, one woman forever changed the course of Mexico’s history. She served Hernán Cortés as his translator and mistress and without her assistance, the Spanish conquistador would likely have been defeated. She was a woman who had many names, Malintzin in her youth and Doña Marina, after she had been christened. However, today the name she is frequently remembered by is La Malinche or simply, Malinche. Her name has become synonymous with hatred and scorn. Many look upon her as a traitor and hold her responsible for contributing directly to the conquest of her people.

Early accounts of her life indicate she was noble-born to a father who was the ruler of the Náhuatl-speaking village of Paynala. Generally, her date of birth is attributed to the year 1505 with the year of her death, 1529. However, there is some evidence that she may have lived longer. Malinche received an education, which was rare for a female in her society. Undoubtedly, it was her father’s status that afforded Malinche this privilege. Unfortunately, her father died when she was still a young girl and this tragic event forever changed her life.

La Malinche translating for Hernan Cortes

Hernan Cortes and La Malinche holding court

Hernan Cortes and La Malinche holding court

Before long, Malinche’s mother remarried and gave birth to a son. Sadly, Malinche was no longer welcome in the home and was either sold or given away to Maya slave-traders. Perhaps, the mother was forced to abandon her child. Some speculate that Malinche threatened the son’s future inheritance. Regardless, the chain of events that followed held greater consequences than anyone could imagine.

In 1519, Cortés and his men won a battle against a Mayan settlement in the area of present-day Tabasco. As a form of tribute, 20 Indian slaves were presented to the Spaniards. Malinche was amongst them. Her unique knowledge of Náhuatl, the Aztec language, as well as Mayan dialects, came to the attention of Cortés. Another translator was already a part of Cortés’ entourage, a Spanish priest by the name of Gerónimo de Aguilar.

This priest was imprisoned by the Mayans for several years and had learned their language. This proved an invaluable asset to Cortés. However, they soon encountered Indians who only spoke Náhuatl. The priest initially played a role in these translations. The representatives of Montezuma would speak Náhuatl with Malinche, who in turn would translate their words into Mayan for Aguilar. The priest would then translate the Mayan into Spanish, for the benefit of Cortés.

Before long, however, Malinche learned Spanish and became the direct interpreter for Cortés. Cortés utilized Malinche’s linguistic abilities to his advantage in his negotiations with the Aztec Empire. Indeed, Malinche arranged and mediated the introductions and meetings between Montezuma and Cortés. Montezuma carefully considered the Spanish conquistador the return of Quetzacoatl. However, this illusion evaporated when he realized Cortés’ true intent.

La Malinche serving as tranlator for Hernan Cortes

La Malinche serving as translator for Hernan Cortes

Malinche became more than just an interpreter for Cortés. Christened with her new name of Dona Marina, she became the Spaniard’s mistress and in 1522, bore him a son named Don Martín Cortés. Their child represents one of the first known Mestizos, an individual whose blood is a mixture of European and indigenous American. However, after the affair between Cortés and Malinche came to an end, she married another Spaniard named Juan Jaramillo. Their union produced a daughter, Maria Jaramillo.

La Malinche serving as translator for Hernan Cortes

Malinche’s ability to communicate and negotiate with various tribes allowed the Spanish to march through territories without being attacked. They picked up converts along the way. Many indigenous people joined Cortés and fought by his side. These tribes were motivated to join the Spanish, in hope of defeating their long-standing enemy, the Aztecs. This brutal and mighty empire had subjugated them for far too long.

Today, in Mexico a derogatory name to call someone is a “malinchista”, a person who turns their back on their own culture. Interestingly enough, some do not consider Malinche a traitor. Some view her as a heroine, helping spread the word of Christianity. For others, she was a woman in love, who had no choice but to follow her heart and protect her beloved Cortés. Malinche is viewed as well with honor by those who consider her one of the first “mothers” of the Mestizo race. Regardless of how one perceives Malinche, she forever changed the course of Mexico’s destiny.

This part of Mexico’s history about La Malinch as the translator and companion to Cortez is so interesting to me. Let me know what you think or would like to learn  about.  In the meantime, enjoy.

Resources: mexonline.com Published or posted April 23, 2010 by Aetna J B

Hernan Cortez - Conquerer and Explorer

Hernan Cortes was born into a family of “little wealth but much honor” in Castile, Spain in 1485. At the age of fourteen he attended the University of Salamanca but he left after just two years. In 1504 he sailed for Hispaniola (now called Santo Domingo) where he settled for six years, becoming a farmer and a notary to the town council. In 1509 he missed two ill-fated expeditions to South America due to contracting syphilis but in 1511 was sufficiently recovered to accompany Diego Velazquez on his conquest of Cuba. Velazquez was appointed Governor of Cuba and Cortes became a clerk to the Treasurer, eventually rising to be elected mayor (alcalde) of Santiago twice.

In 1518 Velazquez designated Cortes Captain General of a new expedition. Cortes took eleven ships, 608 men, and sixteen horses with him to Mexico. He landed at Tabasco in March 1519, quickly winning over the local population. He stayed here for some time, gathering intelligence and founding Vera Cruz. A local woman, Marina (also known in Mexico as Malinche), became his interpreter and later bore him a son, Martin. He also burned his ships, committing himself and his forces to their mission of conquering Mexico, there was no turning back.

Cortes quickly discovered that the Aztec empire was hated and feared by many of the other Indian tribes who had to pay tributes (including people to be sacrificed) to the Aztecs. By keeping conflict to a minimum, Cortez made over 200,000 allies, including the Tlaxcala, who became his closest allies after being defeated by the Spaniards. Cortes finally reached Tenochtitlan, capital of the Aztec empire on 8th November 1519 where Emperor Moctezuma II received him with great honour, believing him to be the reincarnation of the Aztec god Quetzalcoatl. Cortes soon took Moctezuma captive.

Hernan Cortez

At this time a Spanish army, led by Panfilo Narvaez, landed on the Mexican coast, with orders from Velazquez to capture and arrest Cortes. Leaving Captain Pedro de Alvarado in charge at Tenochtitlan, Cortes engaged Narvaez, defeating him and enlisting many of Narvaez’s soldiers to his side. On returning to Tenochtitlan however he found that the Aztecs had revolted after Alvarado had massacred several of their chiefs. The Spaniards had to retreat. Cortes overcame a huge Aztec army at Otumba on July 7th 1520 and reached Tlaxcala where he rebuilt and reorganised his forces. They marched again on Tenochtitlan, laying siege to the city. It finally fell on 13th August 1521 – and with it the Aztec Empire. Cortes razed Tenochtitlan, and built Mexico City in its place. In 1522 Cortes was appointed Governor and Captain General of New Spain.

Hernan Cortez

Velazquez, jealous of Cortes’ success, embarked on a smear campaign back in Spain, which Cortes tried to refute by sending a series of long letters to King Charles V. In 1524 Cortes went on a disastrous expedition to Honduras, damaging his health and reputation. The officials he left in charge confiscated his property in Mexico. Their administration was cruel, and this caused consternation in Spain. Luis Ponce de Leon was sent to Mexico to discover what was happening but he died almost immediately. Cortes was accused in some quarters of poisoning him. In 1528 Cortes returned to Spain, with gifts of treasure, to plead his case with the king. Charles V received him and made him Marques del Valle.

He returned to Mexico in 1530 and spent the next ten years there. In 1540 a viceroy was appointed and Cortes returned to Spain. He accompanied Charles V on a final expedition to Algiers, which ended in failure. He died in Seville on 2nd December 1547, and his remains were transported to Mexico City in 1629.

Resource information:Mexonline.com

This is a must read so I’m republishing this real life account in a Mexican prison.

At 9:15 a.m. on February 3, 2010, I steeled myself to enter the Central Penitentiary in Oaxaca, Mexico. Having heard stories of overcrowding, rampant drug use, filthy conditions, torture, inadequate food, poor health care, disease and corruption, my personal concern about entering such a place was great. Fortunately, I was not here as a prisoner but as a guest of the Reverend Spencer Thompson, padre to the inmates. At his invitation, I would observe prison conditions and his ministry in action. This is a recounting of my experiences.

At the main gate, heavily armed guards in full military dress searched Thompson’s ten year old vehicle for contraband. Before entering the main prison compound, we passed two checkpoints where all possessions were examined, photo identification was produced and taken and we were physically searched. After a second identification check, we were allowed to proceed “at will” and unescorted.

Once inside the prison walls, we entered a short tunnel that exited onto an enormous outdoor compound where twenty or so young men were playing soccer on a concrete field. We were now in the main prison compound. Within seconds, we were surrounded by six young men eager to shake the reverend’s hand and give him a hug. This same scene would unfold as we circumnavigated one wing of this prison of 1,200 inmates over the course of three hours.

Right from the start, I was confused by what was going on. I expected a highly regimented environment. What I saw was more like a schoolyard. There were women and children coming and going everywhere. Third, the soccer field was surrounded by kiosks selling food and other staples. It actually had the aspect of a county fairground. The people we encountered were dressed in street clothes, albeit in varying degrees of shabbiness. There were no prison uniforms and Rev. Thompson explained to me that they were in fact the prisoners or their family members. Most of prisoners were young. As our tour progressed I learned a great deal about the Mexican prison system: some aspects of which were very admirable and some much less so.

It was my intent to write a human interest story on the mission of Thompson. However having met and hugged many prisoners, having talked to them at length and having listened to their concerns, the story has evolved into one of the human condition and the interaction between the guards, the prisoners, the prison administration and Thompson. To me, the prison, and my experiences of it, brought forth feelings of delight and pathos blended in equal dollops.

The Prison

Permit me to give you a sense of our environment — not as a moving revelation but as a recollection of the facility over a number of days. This is a penitentiary and it is constructed of concrete and steel. Picture a large box with high concrete sides enclosing a central compound surrounded by various rooms, dormitories, workshops and prison cells.

The majority of prisoners are housed in windowless, concrete dorms of about 50 x 20 feet.

The prison authority provides no blankets, no beds, and no mattresses: nothing. The prisoner is escorted to the dorm and told this is your new home. When you sleep, you pull up a corner of the concrete floor. Over time and with the help of family, the prisoners have constructed their own little rooms made of a wood frames to which are attached blankets granting some semblance of privacy. The stalls are about 4 x 6 feet, some of which are furnished with beds, cooking equipment, shelving for clothing and one even had a TV although I have no idea how the electrical system was accessed.

Special prisoners, mainly drug users, are housed in cells with metal bar doors. About six to nine prisoners are housed to a cell equipped with bunk beds three levels high. The beds are poured-in-place concrete and that is the totality of the furnishings supplied by the state. Once again the prisoners must provide, through whatever means, their bedding.

Throughout the day, these special prisoners have complete access to the rest of the prison although they do have their own work zone and are locked in after 8 p.m.

You circumnavigate the prison wing along the perimeter walls where a walkway about 40 feet wide separates the dormitories from the wall. Near the far end of the wing is a section for women prisoners, of which there are about 120. The women have a small exercise area fenced off in the front of their dormitory. Men can walk through this area with impunity but access to the women’s dorm is restricted by guards. At the extreme end of the wing is an infirmary which provides minimal medical attention.

Throughout the day, you will find most men and women engaged in some form of work. The prison is a hot bed of entrepreneurship. The prisoners are engaged in various activities to make money to pay for basic necessities like food and clothing. The most common form of work is hand sewing of soccer balls. This is a state run enterprise and the prisoners are paid 8 pesos — or roughly 75 cents — per finished ball. Other businesses include wood carving, the manufacturing of roses out of bars of soap, manufacturing of simple jewelry, basket weaving, the running of small restaurants, sewing of clothing and manufacturing of metal trinkets, hammocks, picture frames and other specialty crafts. These wares are sold to visitors or carried out of the prison by family to be sold in the open market. Some of the more talented prisoners take orders for their goods from outside merchants.

Within the walls, the prison is completely open. Almost nobody is locked in cages. The prisoners and visitors are free to move about at will. Many prisoners have their families with them throughout the day, including broods of children often conceived within the prison walls. Wives are often working with their husbands making goods for sale. There is great camaraderie amongst the prisoners and the visitors, and everyone keeps an eye on the children. Some fathers provide day care while the mother works in the city of Oaxaca.

The Inmates

When tourists or visitors are asked what they like most about Mexico, they will usually say it is the people. Mexicans are known for their friendliness, warmth and curiosity, for the ability to enjoy life and be happy no matter the circumstances, for their helpfulness, for their courtesy and for their love of children.

Extraordinarily, these same national characteristics are prevalent within the prison walls. All the prisoners I met — and that was at least 150 — greeted me with a warm smile, a hearty handshake and an embarrassing hug. There were no long faces, no sullenness and no poor-me attitudes. Some men lamented their bad decisions in life but never blamed others or asked for a break. They accepted their fate and were making the best of it. I met with extreme courtesy at all times and I saw first-hand the love and devotion parents had for their children as well as the love and respect children had for their mothers and fathers no matter their parents were prisoners.

By contrast, if you asked certain prisoners if you could take their photo, they would revert to their gang mentality showing off their tattoos and gang signs.

There are two distinct economic classes amongst the prisoners. There are the “haves” and the “have nots.” It is plainly visible in their dress. The “haves” are reasonably well dressed with decent shoes while the “have nots” wear ratty jeans and shirts with the meanest footwear one can imagine.

The distinction is entirely dependent on the availability of relatives in the immediate vicinity of the prison. If family is nearby, the inmate can rely on the delivery of clothing and bedding as well as medicine and supplemental food. Family can also remove handicrafts from the prison and sell them in Oaxaca. If there is no family nearby, the inmate suffers economic and emotional deprivation.

Physically, the prisoners appear relatively healthy, at least to my unstudied eye. They are mostly young and therefore still physically strong in spite of very insufficient medical attention. Minor injuries in the prison are not uncommon. One young chap showed me a foot injury suffered that day by stepping on a nail. The wound was cleaned at the infirmary and the man was given a tetanus shot but the wound was not dressed and a big flap of skin hung loose. Now, whenever we go to the prison, we take along a dozen or so bandages to deal with matters like this. We also encountered several prisoners with vision problems which is a definite handicap when stitching soccer balls. There is no eye care in the prison. Dental care doesn’t exist and that is readily evident in the condition of the teeth of many prisoners.

There is a common misconception that the prisoners are not fed by the state. This is not true. They receive two meals a day, although the diet does not vary. At breakfast, each prisoner receives a large bowl of rice with vegetables and a stack of tortillas. In the mid afternoon, they get some sweetbreads. Those with money can also go to various canteens run by the inmates to supplement their diet. You won’t find any fat people in the prison but nobody seems to be starving either.

One cannot help but be impressed by the industriousness of most inmates. If they are to enjoy any supplements to their meager existence, they need to make money and so they sit hour after hour at their chosen profession. After many years, some have become artisans. One man in particular caught my attention. He is in his mid-thirties and as thin as a blade of grass. He is a wood carver and makes elaborate carved church pews, bas relief pieces and even takes commissions from outside the prison. Over the years, with his income, he has purchased an entire workshop including routers, a table saw, sanders and a huge assortment of carving knives. He trains others who are interested. This man has had to rely on his own wits to survive. He has no family in the area and has never had a personal visit during his ten years of imprisonment except for Reverend Thompson. His profession is now his sole means of surviving economically and mentally.

The inmates are also highly adaptive. Although there is a soccer pitch, there are not enough pairs of running shoes to go around, so they share what they have by trading off shoes as they go in and out of play.

Family life continues in the prison unabated. As mentioned, wives, children, girl friends, mothers and fathers all try to maintain the family in spite of the restrictions. Having entire families together daily lends normalcy to everyday life. Conjugal visits are not of the slightest concern to prison authorities. One man introduced me to his five visiting children, some of whom were conceived during his incarceration. His youngest is now three years old and a perfectly delightful little man.

Homosexuality is also prevalent, as is rape of prisoners. In a bizarre practice, the victim of rape is tattooed with a tear drop below the eye by the offending party and his accomplices.

The Mexican justice system is based on Napoleonic law wherein a person is guilty until proven innocent. If you are accused of a crime, you go to jail and wait for a trial.

For many in the Oaxaca state central prison, that trial has yet to occur. It is estimated that 40% of inmates in Mexican prisons have yet to be convicted. For most, their trial is held in absentia and they learn through the prison administration that they have been found guilty and sentenced to a term in the penitentiary. Jail terms in Mexico are quite lengthy and there is seldom abatement of term for good behavior.

The Administration

The prison is run and administered as a branch of the state police. It is headed by a director or warden who is a political appointment of the sitting governor. The current warden has done an excellent job of eradicating drugs from the prison in the past several months and has earned the highest respect from Reverend Thompson. (He has recently been removed from his position.)

The outside perimeter of the prison is protected by heavily armed security forces but the main work goes on inside the walls. The inside guards are dressed in black and no prisoner is allowed to wear that colour. These guards are not armed. They stroll occasionally throughout the prison, interacting with the inmates. They appear to be an affable group of men and women and don’t exhibit any aggressive militaristic behavior. They are simply making sure everything is running smoothly. One guard takes note of my presence wondering who I am and why I am there but the enquiry is more casual than antagonistic.

The principal work with the prisoners is handled by a cadre of social workers. They are primarily women and are young and well educated. They are the record keepers of the prison. They also provide letters of authority, permitting people like Reverend Thompson to visit the prison. They do their utmost to provide social diversion for the prisoners.

A Christmas pageant known as Three Kings Day is organized with the prisoners as actors. Live music and clowns are allowed into the prison to entertain the children and the adults. At Easter, a re-creation of the trial of Jesus and his crucifixion is produced. The prisoners are decked out in period costume including wooden swords and spears. The entire event is filmed and made available as a movie on DVD.

The social workers also facilitated a baptism ceremony officiated over by Thompson. They permitted tents, barbecue equipment and food to be brought into the prison the night before the event. It was also through their efforts that Thompson was granted access to the female prisoners.

The Reverend

The Reverend Spencer Thompson is a graduate of Greensboro College, North Carolina and Boston University School of Theology. He was ordained by the Methodist Church shortly after graduation.

He never served a local church.

For forty years he was a child welfare administrator with a focus on community based services and adoption programs in the states of Massachusetts and New York. He is a man of great compassion and brought his work home with him by adopting eleven children to complement his three natural offspring. Five years ago, after retiring, he moved to Oaxaca intent on opening a bed and breakfast to supplement a very limited pension and to enjoy the lower cost of living in Southern Mexico.

He never did open a B&B but rather assisted an Anglican priest from Texas who wanted to bring the sacrament and the word of God to the prisoners. Three years ago Thompson took over the task. He is now a United Methodist minister working under the auspices of the Anglican Church of Mexico bringing pastoral care to Roman Catholics. The ambiguity of his current situation is not lost on him.

Depending on your perspective, Thompson’s main failing or virtue is his inability to see a limit to compassion. His role in the prison has expanded well beyond delivering the word of God to full blown pastoral care and he has become a one man welfare agency. Each Wednesday and Thursday visit to the prisoners is also the opportunity to bring the prisoners much needed supplies like soap, toothpaste, toothbrushes, shampoo and used clothing and shoes. On Thursdays, he brings a bag of 100 oranges to hand out. The prisoners seldom ever see fruit.

The Oaxaca Lending Library acts as a repository for used clothing and old Spanish language magazines and books. It is quite remarkable to see young men eagerly receive a twenty year old magazine and then scurry off to some corner of the prison to sit and read.

It doesn’t take long to realize the high regard of the inmates for the Reverend. Groups of prisoners surround him as he wends his way through the prison. They greet him with great affection and he speaks to each one, asking about their families, their health and their needs. Some follow him throughout his rounds and some are eager to return to their work. He knows all of the children by name. The children always ask for pesos and he invariably offers besos (kisses) to which they reply “no-no-no, pesos”.

Many prisoners come to him with specific and urgent needs such as the use of a telephone card to call home since a parent or a child has died. Others need medicine which he can’t supply. Others need vitamins. One man needs an artificial leg which is well beyond his means but he has enlisted the support of an American doctor to evaluate the man’s condition through photos and measurements provided by Thompson.

Baptisms are now a part of Thompson’s routine. The children come to the prison dressed up in elaborate finery and a beautiful ceremony, sponsored by the Godparents, follows. How many children in this world have been baptized in a state penitentiary?

Recently, Spencer has taken on pastoral care for the drug abuse unit. This has added a further 42 prisoners to his flock. They meet in a tight room and are an incredibly enthusiastic group. There is strict drug enforcement in the prison now and these men are adjusting well. They are very attentive and devout during the religious and communion services held prior to meeting one on one with their pastor.

For the most part, Thompson funds his mission out of his own pocket. This includes the costs of a translator. The reverend is very well known in Oaxaca, and occasionally, other expatriates give him some financial support. It has taken him three years to build a rapport with the prison administration and the prison body, and he must be extraordinarily careful not to upset entrenched interests. He is allowed into the prison solely at the discretion of the prison administration. He understands all too well that his role is as a pastor to the prisoners and not a critic of the prison. He dances a fine line as an advocate for each prisoner in his flock. Many visitors to Oaxaca take a profound interest in his work owing to some background in health care or social work and insist on accompanying him to the prison to set things right. With great tact, he tries to deflect these noble gestures lest the entire mission is put at risk.

In our discussion, Thompson tells me that he funds his work with the prisoners for about $250 per month plus donations of clothing and books. He could do much more with some help but that is all he is capable of doing from his own resources. It is beyond amazing what he is able to accomplish with such a small amount. He shops very carefully.

Oranges are purchased at $5 per 100. One hundred toothbrushes, tubes of toothpaste and razors were donated. With a donation of $130 he outfitted a complete basketball team of 12 players with shorts and shirts complete with names and numbers. These uniforms are a source of immense pride to the prisoners. He varies the gifts he brings the prisoners weekly. Sometimes it is soap, sometimes it is shampoo. The prisoners desperately need other things like shoes, warm clothing, blankets, eyeglasses, vitamins and medicine which are all beyond his means.

It is hoped that this article — through wide circulation — might generate some donations to his cause, but he is well aware that prisoners may not be a high priority for donors given the broader social needs in Mexico. This begs the question as to why he has chosen to work with prisoners with the inherent risks of disease and violence and why people should support him in his efforts.

“Never once in my life did I imagine visiting a Mexican prison much less twice a week, on purpose, for years. Though I had planned to build a bed and breakfast in Oaxaca Mexico, I now believe I was actually sent here to deliver and enjoy this extraordinary ministry to the prisoners and to the prison staff. I have no illusions about the people I am ministering to. Many have done some terrible things, but in the eyes of God their sins are forgivable. I don’t judge them; I just try to do the best I can to make their lives better. I think my work does me as much good as it does the prisoners. I have never been happier in my life.”

Aren’t you worried about your safety or your health?

“I have never been afraid in the prison. I have had a great life and I am ready for whatever hand I am dealt. There have been occasions where I have met with prisoners who, unknown to me, had some serious disease like TB but I have yet to catch a cold in my three years of giving pastoral care. I can also tell you I have never seen any violent behavior amongst the prisoners. There was a brief fight between two soccer players on the same team when one missed a very easy goal. However, they made up quickly and resumed the game.”

Your predecessor provided a religious service to the prisoners. You have expanded this to include considerable pastoral care as well as a religious service. Is one more important to you than the other?

“Pastoral care now takes up most of my time. This is when I have a chance to meet with inmates one on one, to get to know them personally and get to help them as best I can. Sometimes they just need guidance on a personal matter, but most often they need human interaction if they have no relatives or they need real help to deal with physical or emotional health. I also strongly believe in the need to spread the message of health, healing, wholeness and newness of life which is the Gospel of Redemption. I think both aspects of my ministry are equally important. My predecessor had far greater responsibilities throughout Mexico and was unable to provide this type of pastoral care.”

What is your relationship with the prison administration?

“Right now, I think it is pretty good. Recently one of the guards came to me and said I was doing a great job. However I really have to be careful not to overstep the boundaries set for me. I keep a close relationship with the social workers on the prison staff and try to be an advocate for certain inmates in need of special help. To some extent that is also their job, so I can’t be pushy or I may get kicked out. That would break my heart. Other ministers and priests come to the prison occasionally and take a stab at what I am doing but for the most part, they stop coming after a month or two. I think the administration now sees that I am here for the long term and am truly dedicated. I am almost as much a fixture here as the prisoners but I try never to get carried away. I just nibble away at the corners and each little victory is a big accomplishment for me.”

You are a very religious man.

“Well, I have been an ordained minister for over forty years so that shouldn’t surprise you. I try not to be in your face about it but I do have a real passion about my work at the prison. After all, I never had a local church before so this is my first. When I think about the prisoners, I remember an old Methodist hymn that says: ‘For His angels here are human not the shining host above, and the drumbeats of His army are the heartbeats of our love.’ Even if one is not religious at all, one can find understanding in that line.”

Conclusion

I have tried to convey to you the reality of the prison system in Mexico as well as the work of one dedicated man to make that system more humane. Whatever we might think about prisoners or criminals, we cannot deny that they are still human beings worthy of our consideration and compassion. If you believe in the work of Reverend Spencer Thompson, please support his work both financially and materially. If you live in Oaxaca or are just visiting, please bring surplus clothing, eye glasses, blankets, shoes, medical supplies or the like to the Oaxaca Lending Library. These items are of immense benefit to the inmates.

If you live in the U.S. or Canada, think about making a small financial contribution. It is almost impossible to send anything by mail in Mexico, so tax-exempt charitable donations can be made to the following organizations:

Trinity United Methodist Church
PO Box 38
Grand Island NY 14072

Or

The Peace and Justice Center
P.O. Box 16252
Phoenix, Arizona
85011

Be sure that all donations are clearly marked “Oaxaca Prison Ministry of Spencer Thompson. Please send an email to Spencer at SThomp1256@aol.com letting him know of your kindness.

Published or Updated on: April 12, 2010 by John McClelland © 2010

I’m sure that you agree with me. This is an awsome eye opening article with a little insite on Mexican Prisons.

Published or Updated on: April 16, 2010 by AetnaJoBuitron © 2010

Benito Juarez

SUMMARY: Benito Juarez is considered one of Mexico’s greatest and most beloved leaders. During his political career he helped to institute a series of liberal reforms that were embodied into the new constitution of 1857. During the French occupation of Mexico, Juarez refused to accept the rule of the Monarchy or any other foreign nation, and helped to establish Mexico as a constitutional democracy. He also promoted equal rights for the Indian population, better access to health care and education, lessening the political and financial power of the Roman Catholic church, and championed the raising of the living standards for the rural poor.

Benito Juarez was born March 21st 1806, the child of Zapoteco Indians. After they died when he was three, he went to live with his uncle, but when he was 12 he joined his sister in Oaxaca. He began studying for the priesthood, but in 1829 changed to studying for a law degree, which he received in 1831. That year he also began his political career, with a seat on the municipal council. In 1841 he became a judge, and the governor of Oaxaca.

In 1853 the conservatives took power in Mexico and many liberals were exiled, including Juarez, who spent his time of exile in New Orleans. In 1855 the liberals won the election, and Benito Juarez returned from his exile as the Minister of Justice. In 1857 he was elevated to preside over the supreme court, in effect making him the Vice President. In 1858 the conservatives rebelled, and again Juarez had to leave Mexico City, this time fleeing to Veracruz, where he created a government in exile.

In January 1861 the conservatives lost power, and Benito Juarez became the President of Mexico. As the treasury was practically empty Juarez made the decision to suspend payment on all foreign debts for a two year period. After Mexican congress rejected an agreement Juarez had made with the British Prime Minister to protect the interests of European countries Spanish, British and French troops landed in Vera Cruz. Spain and Britain were there to protect their financial interests, and left in April, after it became clear that France had conquest in mind. The French troops fought for two years, and although suffering  a serious defeat on the 5th of May 1862,eventually captured Mexico City in June 1863, and placed Archduke Maximilian of Austria on the Mexican throne.

Benito Juarez and the government of Mexico were forced to retreat right back to Ciudad Juarez, on the border with the USA. After four years with growing pressure from America, continuing resistance from Mexicans and criticism from the French govenrment and people, finally the Napoleonic forces withdrew. Maximilian himself was captured and executed on 19th June 1867.

Benito Juarez returned to Mexico city, and the presidency even after suffering a stroke in October 1870, and the loss of his wife in 1871. He won the presidential election in 1871, but died on 18th July 1872, of a heart attack.

Location of Victory Battle

The holiday of Cinco De Mayo, The 5th Of May, commemorates the victory of the Mexican militia over the French army at The Battle Of Puebla in 1862. It is primarily a regional holiday celebrated in the Mexican state capital city of Puebla and throughout the state of Puebla, with some limited recognition in other parts of Mexico, and especially in U.S. cities with a significant Mexican population. It is not, as many people think, Mexico’s Independence Day, which is actually September 16.

Setting The Stage
The battle at Puebla in 1862 happened at a violent and chaotic time in Mexico’s history. Mexico had finally gained independence from Spain in 1821 after a difficult and bloody struggle, and a number of internal political takeovers and wars, including the Mexican-American War (1846-1848) and the Mexican Civil War of 1858, had ruined the national economy.

Archduke Ferdinand Maximilian

During this period of struggle Mexico had accumulated heavy debts to several nations, including Spain, England and France, who were demanding repayment. Similar debt to the U.S. was previously settled after the Mexican-American War. France was eager to expand its empire at that time, and used the debt issue to move forward with goals of establishing its own leadership in Mexico. Realizing France’s intent of empire expansion, Spain and England withdrew their support. When Mexico finally stopped making any loan payments, France took action on its own to install Napoleon III’s relative, Archduke Maximilian of Austria, as ruler of Mexico.

France invaded at the gulf coast of Mexico along the state of Veracruz (see map) and began to march toward Mexico City, a distance today of less than 600 miles. Although American President Abraham Lincoln was sympathetic to Mexico’s cause, and for which he is honored in Mexico, the U.S. was involved in its own Civil War at the time and was unable to provide any direct assistance.

Gen. Zaragoza

Marching on toward Mexico City, the French army encountered strong resistance near Puebla at the Mexican forts of Loreto and Guadalupe. Lead by Mexican General Ignacio Zaragoza Seguin, a smaller, poorly armed militia estimated at 4,500 men were able to stop and defeat a well outfitted French army of 6,500 soldiers, which stopped the invasion of the country. The victory was a glorious moment for Mexican patriots, which at the time helped to develop a needed sense of national unity, and is the cause for the historical date’s celebration.

Unfortunately, the victory was short lived. Upon hearing the bad news, Napoleon III had found an excuse to send more troops overseas to try and invade Mexico again, even against the wishes of the French populace. 30,000 more troops and a full year later, the French were eventually able to depose the Mexican army, take over Mexico City and install Maximilian as the ruler of Mexico.

Gen Maximilliano's Shirt

Maximilian’s rule of Mexico was also short lived, from 1864 to 1867. With the American Civil War now over, the U.S. began to provide more political and military assistance to Mexico to expel the French, after which Maximilian was executed by the Mexicans – his bullet riddled shirt is kept at the museum at Chapultepec Castle in Mexico City. So despite the eventual French invasion of Mexico City, Cinco de Mayo honors the bravery and victory of General Zaragoza’s smaller, outnumbered militia at the Battle of Puebla in 1862.

Today’s Celebration
For the most part, the holiday of Cinco de Mayo is more of a regional holiday in Mexico, celebrated most vigorously in the state of Puebla. There is some limited recognition of the holiday throughout the country with different levels of enthusiasm, but it’s nothing like that found in Puebla.

Cinco De Mayo Festival

Celebrating Cinco de Mayo has become increasingly popular along the U.S.-Mexico border and in parts of the U.S. that have a high population of people with a Mexican heritage. In these areas the holiday is a celebration of Mexican culture, of food, music, beverage and customs unique to Mexico.

Commercial interests in the United States and Mexico have also had a hand in promoting the holiday, with products and services focused on Mexican food, beverages and festivities, with music playing a more visible role as well. Several cities throughout the U.S. hold parades and concerts during the week following up to May 5th, so that Cinco de Mayo has become a bigger holiday north of the border than it is to the south, and being adopted into the holiday calendar of more and more people every year.

[Sources: Encyclopedia Encarta, Encyclopedia Britanica, Prescott's Mexico:1900, HistoryChannel.com, other sources. minor edits April 25, 2007]